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UNITEp STATES OF AMERICA. 



THE NORMAL COURSE IN ENGLISH 



BASED UPON THE POPULAR WORKS OF 



PROFESSOR ALFRED H. WELSH 



— * 

THE NORMAL COURSE IN ENGLISH. 

BASED UPON THE POPULAR WORKS OF 

PROFESSOR ALFRED H. WELSH. 



PREPARATORY LESSONS IN LANGUAGE. 

By Mary I. Lovejoy, Principal of Broadway School, 

Chelsea, Mass. 



THE ELEMENTS OF LANGUAGE AND 
GRAMMAR. 
Edited by J. M. Greenwood, A.M., Superintendent 
. of Schools, Kansas City, Mo. 



STUDIES IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Edited by J. M. Greenwood, A.M., Superintendent 
of Schools, Kansas City, Mo. 



Zbe IRormal Course in EiiQlteb 
STUDIES 

IN 

ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

3 Comprtfjenst&e Course 



FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS, HIGH SCHOOLS 
AND ACADEMIES 



BASED UPON WELSH'S " LESSONS IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR' 



EDITED BY 



J. M. .GREENWOOD, A.M. 

f \ 

Superintendent of Schools, Kansas City, Mo. 




3syS 

SILVER, BURDETT & CO., PUBLISHERS 
New York . . . BOSTON . . . Chicago 

1892 






.V/*7* 



Copyright, 1892, 
By SILVER, BURDETT & CO. 



Typography by J. S. Cushing & Co., Boston. 
Presswork by Berwick & Smith, Boston. 



PKEFACE. 



In the preparation of this book, the essential features of 
Welsh's " Lessons in English Grammar" have been retained. 
Many chapters have been rewritten, others enlarged, and 
the entire work has been recast and rearranged. 

Two points have been kept prominently in view : (1) 
What the boy or girl of average ability knows of the use of 
our language before beginning the systematic study of its 
facts, and the laws and usages of its structure ; (2) What 
amount of information such an one ought to possess of our 
language after having studied it intelligently for the length 
of time usually devoted to it in the graded and ungraded 
schools of the country. 

It is, therefore, assumed that they actually know some- 
thing concerning the language they speak and write, and 
that they are capable of learning a great deal more if they 
have an opportunity. 

The sentence is the unit of thought; its elements are 
words, phrases, and clauses. These taken separately are 
pieces of sentences. When properly put together, they 
are the vehicles of thought. 

Good definitions are held to be absolutely necessary in 
the formal study of any science, English Grammar not ex- 
cepted. They are the hitching posts for concentrated 
thought and reference. All definitions in this book are 
therefore clear, pointed, and precise. The language em- 
ployed is designed to convey the exact meaning to the 
pupil's mind. 



G PREFACE. 

The plan of study is for the pupil to master in detail each 
chapter ; to fix its essential points in his mind ; to assimi- 
late and to retain them for all time ; and to be able to use 
them whenever they are needed. 

Exercises for review are interspersed throughout the 
book, for the purpose of testing the learner's knowledge 
of what has been studied. Instead of giving a rule of 
syntax, followed by exercises to be corrected according to 
pattern, all the rules are given in one group, followed by 
miscellaneous exercises. The learner must depend upon 
his own judgment in the application of principles. 

The Glossary of Grammatical Terms will be welcomed by 
teachers generally. In it the pupil will find much that will 
be helpful in the further prosecution of linguistic studies. 

The work, as now submitted to teachers and pupils, is 
believed to be teachable in form, systematically arranged, 
neither cumbersome nor tedious in matter, and it contains 
those essentials of the language which every boy and girl 
ought to know, thoroughly understand, and be able to apply. 

TT J. M. G. 

Kansas City, Mo., 
July, 1892. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. 



CHAPTER I. 
English. PAaE 

Growth and Relations 13 

CHAPTER II. 

English Grammar. — Introduction. 

Preliminary Definitions 17 

Orthography : Letter, Syllable, Word 17 

Use of Capital Letters : Rules 18 

Exercises 22 

Syllables : Syllabication ; Directions 23 

Spelling 24 

Words as Parts of Speech. 

Noun, Pronoun, Adjective, Yerb, Adverb, Preposition, 

Conjunction, Interjection 26 

Questions for Review 27 



CHAPTER III. 

The Sentence. 

Classification as to Structure 29 

Simple 29 

Complex, Compound 30 

Classification as to Use 31 

Declarative, Interrogative 31 

Imperative 32 

- Exclamatory 33 

Exercises 34 

Elements : Word, Phrase, Clause 35 

Principal 36 

Exercises 39 

7 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

Subordinate 40 

Exercises 44 

Connecting 46 

Independent 46 

Exercises 49 

Questions for Review 50 



CHAPTER IV. 
Analyzing Sentences. 

Order of Analysis 52 

Illustrations ■ 52 

Analyzing Sentences by Diagram 55 

Exercises 61 



CHAPTER V. 
Nouns Classified. 

Classes of Common Nouns 63 

Exercises 65 

Modifications 66 

Person 67 

Gender, — Remarks 68 

Number, — Remarks 72 

Case, Nominative 76 

Possessive, Formation 78 

Declension 80 

Uses of Nouns 81 

Exercises 82 

Questions for ' Review 85 

Synopsis for Review . . . . • 87 



CHAPTER VI. 
Pronouns Classified. 

Personal, Interrogative, Relative 89 

Demonstrative, Indefinite. '. 89 

Reciprocal, Compound 90 

Exercises 94 

Modifications 95 

Person 95 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. 9 

PAGE 

Gender 95 

Number 96 

Case 96 

Declension 97 

Uses of Pronouns 99 

Exercises 100 

Questions for Review 102 

Synopsis for Review 103 



CHAPTER VII. 

Adjectives Classified. 

Descriptive, Definitive, Demonstrative, Distributive 104 

Indefinite, Numeral, Interrogative 105 

Exercises 106 

Modification 108 

Comparison 108 

Rules for Spelling 109 

Uses of Adjectives Ill 

Exercises 112 

Questions for Review 113 

Synopsis for Review 114 



CHAPTER VIII. 

Verbs Classified. 

Complete, Incomplete 115 

Transitive, Intransitive 116 

Copulative 117 

Exercises 118 

Verbals 119 

Participles 120 

Infinitives 120 

Principal Parts 121 

Classified with Respect to Form 121 

List of Irregular Verbs 122 

Modifications 127 

Mode 127 

Tense 129 

Person and Number 130 



10 TABLE OF CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

Conjugation 131 

Auxiliary Verbs 131 

Conjugation of Love 135 

Interrogative and Negative Forms 140 

Voice ., 140 

Exercises 142 

Questions for Review 145 

Synopsis for Review 147 



CHAPTER IX. 

Adverbs Classified. 

Local , 148 

Temporal, Causal, Intensive, Modal, Responsive 149 

Interrogative, Conjunctive, Relative 150 

Exercises 152 

Modification 153 

Exercises 154 

Questions for Review 155 

Synopsis for Review 155 



CHAPTER X. 

Prepositions, Conjunctions, and Interjections Classified. 

List of Prepositions 157 

Exercises 160 

Questions for Review 161 

Synopsis for Review 161 

Conjunctions Classified. 

Co-ordinate 162 

Subordinate 163 

Exercises 165 

Questions for Review 166 

Synopsis for Review 167 

Interjections Classified. 

Exercises 168 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. 11 

CHAPTER XI. 

Formation of Words. page 

Kinds of Words 169 

Prefixes 171 

Saxon 7 172 

Latin 172 

Greek 174 

Suffixes 174 

Saxon 174 

Romanic 175 

To Analyze a Word 177 

Exercises 178 



CHAPTER XII. 

Syntax. 

Concord and Government 180 

Rule I. Nominative Case 180 

II. Noun or Pronoun in Apposition 181 

III. The Attribute Comp. and Obj. Comp 181 

IV. Noun Independent or Absolute 182 

V. Possessive Noun or Pronoun 182 

VI. Pronoun and its Antecedent 183 

VII. An Adjective 185 

VIII. Verb and its Subject 186 

IX. Past Tense and Participle 187 

X. Sense of the Auxiliary Verb 187 

XI. Time indicated by Tense-forms 188 

XII. General Structure 188 

XIII. Object of Verbs, Participles, and Prepositions . . 190 

XIV. Subject of Infinitives 191 

XV. Adverbs 192 

XVI. Conjunctions 192 

XVII. Interjections 192 

Order of the Words in Sentences. 

Principles 193 

Rules 193 

Exercises 198 

Parsing the Parts of Speech 205 



12 TABLE OF CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER XIII. 

Punctuation. pagb 

Period , 208 

Interrogation Point 209 

Exclamation Point 209 

Colon 209 

Semicolon 210 

Comma 211 

Dash 213 

Cnrves 214 

Brackets 214 

Quotation Marks 215 

Underscore . . 1 216 

Apostrophe 216 

Hyphen 216 

Exercises , 217 



CHAPTER XIV. 

Figures of Speech 220 

Simile . . 220 

Metaphor 221 

Allegory 222 

Metonymy 222 

Synecdoche 222 

Hyperbole 223 

Personification 224 

Climax. .'. 224 

Apostrophe 224 



Glossary of Grammatical Terms 225 

Index 237 



STUDIES IN ENGLISH GEAMMAE. 



oj^o 



CHAPTER I. 
English. — Growth and Relations. 

1. Our language is called English from the word 
JEnglisc (Angle or Engle), the name of a tribe of Ger- 
mans who, with other German tribes (Saxons and 
Jutes), settled in Britain about the middle of the fifth 
century. Their new home was called ^Engla-land, 
land of the Angles. 

2. The speech brought over by these people was 
unmixed and was but little influenced by that of the 
old Celtic inhabitants of Britain, whom, for the most 
part, they drove out or destroyed. Some words, how- 
ever, as crag, crock, cradle, mop, bonnet, ribbon, were 
added from this source, just as we in America retain 
a few words, as canoe, wigwam, borrowed from the 
Indians that once spread over this continent. 

3. A few words in general use, as scold, shy, fellow, 
cake, were taken from the Northmen of Scandinavia, 
who, in the ninth century, obtained a footing in the 
North and East of England. 

4. In the eleventh century the English were over- 
come by the Normans, who spoke French. After a 
while the conquerors, being the smaller number, min- 
gled with the conquered, and, by the mixture of the 

13 



u 



ENGLISH GBAMMAR. 



two, their speech also came to be somewhat mixed. 
Thus very many of our words come from France. 

5. For nearly four hundred years before the coming 
of the Angles, the Romans had occupied the central 
portion of the island, and the English settlers adopted 
the Latin (or Roman) names for certain familiar ob- 
jects: vallum (a wall); castra (a camp), changed to 
ceastre, then to chester (man-chester) ; strata = street 
= street. 

6. The Roman priests and monks who brought Chris- 
tianity to our forefathers in the "sixth century, intro- 
duced some Latin words, connected chiefly with the 
services of the Church. Thus : — 



Latin. 




Old English. 




Modern English 


episcopus 


= 


biscop 


= 


bishop 


monachus 


= 


munuc 


= 


monk 


sanctus 


= 


sanct 


= 


saint 


diaconus 


= 


diacon 


= 


deacon 


presbyter 


= 


preast 


= 


priest 



7. French is really an offshoot from Latin, and so 
the Norman Conquest was the means of adding to Eng- 
lish another very considerable Latin element, much 
altered from the original form, as reason (Lat. ratio, 
Fr. raison). Usually, words that have come to us 
directly from the Latin have not undergone so much 
change in spelling : — 



Latin. 


Coming Directly 
into English. 


Indirectly through 
Norman French. 


captivum 

factum 

hospitale 

securum 

separare 


captive 

fact 

hospital 

secure 

separate 


caitiff 
feat 
hotel 
sure 

sever 



ENGLISH. — GROWTH AND RELATIONS. 15 

8. Through the Revival of Learning in the six- 
teenth century, English writers added to the language 
very many Latin words with very little change of 
form. 

9. We have also borrowed many scientific and philo- 
sophical words from the Greek, as music, botany ; and 
miscellaneous terms from numerous other languages, as 
boom, yacht, which are Dutch ; calico, which is Hindoo ; 
lilac,, which is Persian ; satin, which is Chinese ; and 
so on. 

10. Thus we see that the English language, as it now 
exists, is made up from many tongues. Yet the Anglo- 
Saxon is the basis, furnishing all our grammar (ways 
of putting words together), and the majority, perhaps 
three-quarters, of words in daily use. 

11. Saxon words are connected with the feelings of 
the great mass of the people, with the common arts and 
modes of life, the familiar sights and sounds of earth 
and sky. Tims, father, mother, husband, wife, friend, 
home, cradle, hunger, sorrow, anger, wonder, bitter, tear, 
smile, light, heat, cold, rain, snow, storm, fly, sivim, creep, 
crawl, sight, touch, taste, body, head, ear, eye, tongue, lip, 
chin, and others of like import, are Saxon. 

12. We have a very long series of English works, 
written at different periods, and going back beyond the 
time of King Alfred, who died in 891. From these 
writings we see how English has changed from time to 
time; some words passing out of use, others coming 
into use ; some changing their meaning, almost all 
changing their pronunciation. Turn, for example, to 
the sixth and seventh verses of the first chapter of St. 
Mark, and compare what you see there with the follow- 
ing forms of the same passage : — 



16 



ENGLISH GRAMMAB. 



A.D. 1000. 


A.D. 1150. 


A.D. 1380. 


And Iohannes wses ge- 


And Iohannes waes 


And John was clothid 


scryed 


gescryd 




mid oluendes hser urn 


mid olfendes hsere 


with heeris of camelis, 


& fellen gyrdel 


& fellen gyrdel 


and a girdil of skyn 


wees ymbe his lendenu 


wses embe his lendene 


abowte his leendis ; 


& gserstapan & wudu 


& garstapen & wude 


and he eet locustus, 


hunighe set. 


hunig he aet. 


and hony of the wode, 


& he bodude & cwaeth. 


& he bodede & cwaeth. 


and preclude, seyinge 


strenga cymth sefter 


strengre kymth sefter 


A strengere than I 


me 


me. 


schal come aftir me 


thses ne eom ic wyrthe 


thas ne aem ich wurthe 


of whom I knelinge 


that ic his sceona 


that ic his scone 


am not worthi for to 


thwanga 


thwange 


undo 


bugende uncnytte 


bugende un-cnette 


the thong of his 
schoon 



13. Because the English language was brought from 
Germany, it is still very much like the languages of 
Germany, and is accordingly often called a Germanic 
language. You may see this likeness by comparing, 
for instance, our house and thou hast with the German 
haus and du hast. By extending this comparison, 
scholars have shown that most of the languages in 
Europe are related to one another by having descended 
from a common parent, the Aryan, whose ancient abode 
was somewhere in Asia. 

To report and describe in an orderly way the facts of 
a language, to collect and set forth the manner in 
which it is used by people of the best education, is the 
true aim of a grammar. 



INTRODUCTION. 17 



CHAPTER II. 
Introduction. 

PRELIMINARY DEFINITIONS. 

English Grammar is the science of the principles 
and usages of the English language. The principles 
of the English language may be conveniently classed 
as follows: — 

1 . The elementary sounds and letters of the language. 

2. The grouping of the words into classes. 

3. The construction and analysis of sentences. 

4. The rules that govern versification. 

Therefore English Grammar is divided into four 
parts : orthography, etymology, syntax, and prosody. 

ORTHOGRAPHY. 

Orthography is that division of grammar which treats 
of the elementary sounds ; the letters and diacritical 
marks which represent them; the combination of letters 
into syllables and words. 

Orthoepy, which treats of the pronunciation of words, 
is learned from spelling books and dictionaries. 

A letter is a character which denotes one or more 
elementary sounds of the language. 

A syllable is a letter or a combination of letters 
uttered by one impulse of the human voice. 



18 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

A word is a syllable, or syllables, having some 
meaning. 

Remark. — Orthography is from the two Greek words, orthos, 
right, and graphein, to write ; it means correct writing. 

The elementary sounds of the language are divided 
into vocals, sub-vocals, and aspirates. Vocals are pure 
voice sounds; sub- vocals are voice and breath; and 
aspirates are breath sounds : also, some writers call the 
vocals vowel sounds, and the sub- vocals and aspirates 
consonant sounds. Tables of the elementary sounds may 
be found in nearly all the higher grade of school 
readers. 

THE USE OF CAPITALS. 

One of the helps to clear expression is the use of dif- 
ferently sized letters. Thus, lord in its general sense 
denotes a man of authority and power, and when so used 
it is begun with a small letter ; in its particular appli- 
cation to God or a person, as ' Lord Bacon,' it is begun 
with a larger letter, called a capital. 1 Similarly, if we 
wish to combine sea and dead — the one a common 
name and the other a common attribute — and to desig- 
nate by the combination a single object, this peculiar 
use is rendered visible by initial capitals : Dead Sea. 
Thou is capitalized below to show its reference to the 
Deity : — 

O Thou whose love can ne'er forget its offspring man ! 

The presence of the antecedent, however, renders such 
capitalization quite unnecessary, since the reference is 
perfectly clear without it 

1 Latin caput, head. Large letters are so named because they are usu- 
ally placed at the heads of words or sentences. 



INTR 01) UCTION. - 19 

These are thy glorious works, Parent of Good, 

Almighty ! thine this universal frame, 

Thus wondrous fair : thyself how wondrous then ! 

We write 'the constitution of the world,' but 'the Consti- 
tution of the United States ' ; ' the reformation of char- 
acter,' but 'the Reformation of Luther'; 'a revolution in 
politics,' but Hhe Revolution of 1776'; ' democratic prin- 
ciples,' but Hhe principles of the Democratic party.' 
The foundation of the difference is, that the use of a 
word as a proper name requires an initial capital. It 
is for this reason that the principal words in the titles 
of books, which are really names of individual objects, 
are capitalized. 

If the writer attaches peculiar weight to a word, he 
may express the fact to the reader's eye by capitalizing 
either all the letters or the initial one. Thus, when a 
word is being defined, it is not unusual to commence it 
with a capital. Who has not observed how customary 
it is, in advertisements, to begin with capitals the 
names of the leading objects to which it is desired to 
draw attention ? 

Though not for the sake of emphasis, yet still to 
assist the reader's understanding, the beginnings of 
sentences, while marked by certain points or stops, are 
also capitalized ; and when one sentence is contained 
in another as a quotation, without change of form or 
introductory connective, the initial capital is retained : — 

(1) Remember the maxim, "Honesty is the best policy." 

(2) Remember that honesty is the best policy. 

These illustrations suggest that every rule of capi- 
talization derives its value from this principle, — that 
the design of capitals is to exhibit to the eye the idea ; 



20 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

consequently, that their different uses are mainly reduci- 
ble to two, — the indication of proper names, and' the 
indication of emphasis. 

It follows, moreover, from the essential office of capi- 
tals — to bring out the meaning of a sentence — that 
something must be allowed to taste. Within reasonable 
limits the usage of the same or of different writers may 
properly vary, as in the following: — 

The canebrakes of the state of Louisiana. — Bancroft. 

The union of the States. — Everett. 

Used in Louisiana and some neighboring states. — Worcester. 

The States of Italy. — Macaulay. 

In the service of a single state. — Ibid. 

For the Bar or the pulpit. — Mandeville. 

He is a member of the bar. — Worcester. 

The general practice is to begin with capitals : — 

1. Every sentence. 

2. Every line of poetry. 

3. Every direct quotation — one expressing a thought, 
and not introduced by a conjunction : — 

{Direct.) The poet says, " Learn to labor and to wait." 
{Indirect.) The poet says that we must learn to labor and 

to wait. 
{Direct.) His question is " Why do you not go ? " 
{Indirect.) He desires to know why you do not go. 

4. Statements enumerated in a formal manner : — 

To establish the similarity, of two polygons, it must be 
proved : — 

(1) That they are mutually equiangular ; 

(2) That their corresponding sides are proportional. 

5. Illustrative examples (quotations, or assumed to 
be such), if sentences : — 



INTRODUCTION. 21 

(1) The distinction is that yea and nay are answers to questions 
framed in the affirmative ; as, Will lie go ? 

(2) When from sudden emotion we give utterance to some 
abrupt, inverted, or elliptical expression, w r e are said to use an 
exclamation; as, Bravo! Dreadful! The fellow ! 

6. Proper names, hence also names of months and 
days, leading words in titles of books and essays, and 
all appellations of the Deity. 

7. Proper adjectives, — adjectives derived from proper 
nouns. Not infrequently words so derived have lost 
their primary reference, like worn and faded coins. Such 
are usually written with small initials ; as, damask, from 
Damascus, and stentorian, meaning loud, from Stentor, 
a fabulous person noted for the strength of his lungs. 

8. Names of things vividly personified, when indi- 

Thou Sun, said I, fair light ! 
And thou, enlightened Earth, so fresh and gay ! 
Ye hills and dales, ye rivers, woods, and plains, 
And ye that live and move, fair creatures, tell, 
Tell, if you saw, how came I thus, how here ? 

9. Titles of office, honor, or respect, when used in 
connection with the proper name or (as a rule) in 
direct address. 

10. Names of the cardinal points (north, south, etc.), 
when these denote a district or a people, but not when 
expressing mere direction. 

11. Finally, the pronoun I and the interjection 
should be capitals. 

Both and oh express emotion, but the former is 
customarily used before vocatives : — 

O Fortune, Fortune ! all men call thee fickle. 
If the world be worth thy winning, 
Think, oh ! think, it worth eirjovino;. 



22 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

EXERCISES. 

The pupils will make the necessary corrections, and will give 
the reasons therefor : — 

(1) We had much pleasure. (2) My name is pleasure. (3) The 
entrance into the garden of hope was by two gates ; one of w r hich 
was kept by reason, and the other by fancy. (4) The general as- 
sembly meets on the first monday in January. (5) Let not the 
snares of the world, Oh my Son, take away your heart from good. 

(6) Three cheers were given for the "champion of the south. " 

(7) The bible says, "children, obey your parents." (8) She is 
gone to him that comforteth as a father comforteth. (9) The 
president lives in the white house. (10) These birds go South in 
Winter, but return in Spring or Summer. (11) At length the 
toleration act was sent down to the commons. (12) He flattered 
himself that the tories might be induced to make some conces- 
sions to the dissenters, on condition that the w T higs would be 
lenient to the Jacobites. (13) See art's fair Empire o'er our 
shores advance. (14) Burke's "philosophical inquiry into the ori- 
gin of our ideas of the sublime and beautiful," and allison's " essays 
on the nature and principles of taste," are works of permanent value. 
(15) The reign of queen Anne is generally admitted to have been 
the augustan age of English literature. (16) The norm an con- 
quest was the means of introducing chivalry and the feudal system 
into England. (17) The wars of the roses desolated britain between 
the years 1455 and 1485. (18) The work is admirably adapted to 
the use of schools. (19) He made him colonel of a regiment and 
sent him to gen. Sherman for orders. (20) The english stood fast, 
although the french invaders poured upon them a continuous dis- 
charge of arrows, which seemed to fall like Winter hail. (21) There 
is a kinship in art like that between all the dutch and flemish mas- 
ters of the germanic school. (22) The w r ays of providence are in- 
scrutable to human eyes. (23) The sessions of the architectural 
board will be held in the large hall. (24) A bill was passed by 
congress, locating the world's Columbian exposition at Chicago. 

(25) trust no future, howe'er pleasant ! 
let the dead past bury its dead ! 
act — act in the living present ! 
heart within, and god o'erhead. 



INTRODUCTION. 23 



SYLLABLES. 



Words are classified according to the number of syl- 
lables, — each syllable representing a distinct sound. 
A word of one syllable is a monosyllable ; of two sylla- 
bles is a dissyllable ; of three syllables is a trisyllable ; 
and of four or more syllables is a polysyllable. 

Dividing a word into its syllables is called syllabica- 
tion. Separating a word into syllables assists in ascer- 
taining the correct pronunciation of the word. The 
sign of separation is the hyphen (-), which is placed 
between the syllables, or the parts of a compound 
word. Instead of putting a hyphen between syllables, 
a space may be used for the purpose of separation. 
Consequently a word may be separated into syllables 
in two ways ; thus, ef-fem f -i-na-cy, or effem* i na cy. 

The following directions will aid the learner in sepa- 
rating words into syllables : — 

1. Join consonants generally to the vowel sounds 
they modify ; as, phil-o-soph'-ic-al, av-oir-du-pois ! . 

2. Separate two vowel sounds that come together 
unless they make a diphthong ; as, pan-a-ce'-a, a-e'-ri-al. 

3. Prefixes and suffixes are usually separated from 
the radical words which they modify ; as, cheer'-less, 
con-spic'-u-ous. In some cases the prefix loses the force 
of its original meaning, and the direction does not apply ; 
as may be shown with the words ree'-ol-lect and re-col-lect' '. 

4. Compound words when separated are divided 
into the simple words of which they are composed ; 
as, day-break, postal-card. 

5. A word may be divided at the end of a line, but 
a syllable never. 



24 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

SPELLING. 

Spelling is the art of naming or writing the letters 
composing a word in their proper order. Words are 
spelled orally in two ways ; namely, by letters and by 
sounds. To spell a word by sound is to spell it pho- 
netically. 

A complete list of the written signs of a language is 
its alphabet. This word is derived from Alpha, Beta, 
the names of the first two letters of the Greek alphabet. 

In a perfect alphabet there would be as many letters 
as there are sounds in the language. Our forty- three 
sounds ought to be represented by forty-three symbols. 
Evidently, then, our alphabet is very imperfect. 

1. It consists of only twenty-six letters, three of 
which, c, q, x, are not needed, since c may be repre- 
sented by s or k (as in certain, card), q by k, qu by 
kw (guick), x by ks (fo#). We have really, there- 
fore, only twenty-three useful letters. 

2. One letter or combination may stand for more than 
one sound ; as, s in seas ; g in girl and gin ; a in ale, 
add, share, far ; ough in bough, borough, cough, through. 

3. The same sound is represented by different signs ; 
as the short sound of e appears in end, many (meny), 
said (se(T), friend (frend), and the sound of k in keep, 
cause, chorus. 

4. There are many silent letters : through, borough. 

To remedy the defects of the alphabet : — 

1. It is supplemented by a number of double letters, 
or digraphs, which are as inconsistently employed as 
the simple characters themselves ; as, ph&ntom, malign, 
mu-gh. 



IN TR OB UCTION. 25 

2. A final e is used to indicate a long vowel ; as, bite. 
The preceding vowel, however, is frequently short; as, 
live, give. 

8. A consonant is doubled to indicate a short vowel ; 
as, folly, hotter. 

The following rules for spelling words will aid those 
who study them carefully : - — 

1. Words of one syllable ending in f, I, or s, pre- 
ceded by a single vowel, double the final consonant ; 

as, staff, cliff, doff, puff ; all, bell, tell, hill, toll ; grass, 
mass, press, hiss, muss, truss. The important exceptions 
are clef, if, of, pal, nil, sol, as, gas, yes, gris, his, this, 
plus, pus, bus, thus, us. 

2. Words ending' in other consonants do not double 
the final letter; as, bad, drag. There are, however, 
some exceptions ; as, add, egg, err, inn, burr, purr, butt, 
buzz, fuzz, and some other words. 

3. Words of one syllable and words accented on 
the last syllable ending with a single consonant pre- 
ceded by a single vowel, double the final consonant 
before a suffix beginning with a vowel ; as, per-mit\ 
permitting ; drop, dropped. 

4. Final e is usually omitted before a suffix begin- 
ning with a vowel; as, save, sav-ing ; blue, blu-ish; but 
words ending in ce and ge retain the e before ous and 
able to prevent a change of sound in c and g ; as, change, 
change-a-ble ; peace, peace-a-ble. 

5. Words ending in y preceded by a consonant 
change y to i when a suffix is added (except the suf- 
fix ing) ; as, merry, merrier ; pity, pit-i-ful. 

6. Compounds usually follow the spelling of the 
simple words of which they are composed; as, up-hill, 



26 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

shell-fish, full-eyed; but permanent compounds ending 
in full and all sometimes drop an L 

WORDS AS PARTS OF SPEECH. 

Words, according to their uses in language, are di- 
vided into eight groups or classes, called parts of speech ; 
namely, nouns, pronouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs, prepo- 
sitions, conjunctions, and interjections. They may be de- 
fined as follows : — 

1. A noun is a word used as a name ; as, Henry, box, 
truth. 

2. A pronoun is any word that stands for a noun ; as, 
He loves his mother, and she loves him. They took 
what they wanted. 

3. An adjective is a word used to limit or qualify 
the meaning of a noun; as, good man, that book. 

4. A verb is a word that asserts, commands, or 
questions ; as, He runs. Drop it ! Does he study ? 
They saw the soldier when he crossed the river. A 
verb is also a word that expresses action, being, or state. 

5. An adverb is a word that modifies the meaning of 
a verb, adjective, or other adverb; as, The boys are 
there, and they are studying very diligently. 

6. A preposition is a word that connects its object to 
some other word ; as, He crossed the river on the bridge. 

7. A conjunction is a word that connects words, 
phrases, and sentences ; as, John and James went to 
town. He spoke of the gigantic trees and the beauti- 
ful flowers. George went to England, but Charles 
remained at home. 

8. An interjection is a word that expresses emotion ; 
as, alas ! pshaw ! 



INTRODUCTION. 27 



QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW. 

1. What is English grammar? 

2. Into how many classes is it divided ? 

3. Define and illustrate each. 

4. What is orthography? 

5. How is it derived ? 

6. What is a letter? 

7. What is the difference between a letter and its sound? 

8. Define elementary sound. 

9. What is the difference between a letter and a syllable ? 

10. When are they the same? Why? 

11. When may a letter, a syllable, and a word be all in one? 

12. Illustrate. 

13. Write a classified list of all the vocals, sub-vocals, and aspi- 
rates in our language. 

11. State the difference between capital and small letters. 

15. Write ten sentences illustrating ten different rules for using 
capitals. 

16. Give the classification of words into syllables. 

17. What is the literal meaning of each of the words mono- 
syllable, dissyllable, trisyllable and polysyllable ? 

18. Define syllabication. 

19. Separate the following words into syllables and give a valid 
reason therefor : petroleum, vicarious, oleaginous, mischievous. 

20. In how many ways can a word be spelled ? Illustrate. 

21. Give an example under each of the six rules for spelling 
words. 

22. Give an exception under each rule. 

23. Write a definition of each part of speech. 



28 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



CHAPTER III. 
Language. —The Sentence. 

Language is, in the broadest sense, any means of ex- 
pressing thought, feeling, or purpose. Grammatically 
speaking, it is divided into two kinds : written and 
spoken. Both divisions are made up of words, and the 
words are grouped into classes, called parts of speech. 
The English language, therefore, like all other lan- 
guages, is composed of words, and words make sen- 
tences. 

THE SENTENCE. 

A sentence is a thought expressed in words. The 
sentence is the unit of thought in the English language. 

Should you hear some person speak only the words 
stars, leaves, iron, you would naturally ask, " Well, what 
about them ? " 

Nor would you be satisfied, should you hear merely 
such expressions as shine, fall, is useful, room, carpet, my, 
is, the, in, dusty, very. The natural question would be, 
What falls?, What shines?, etc. Neither the single 
words nor the groups tell anything. 

If now these words be fitted together in a certain way, 
no explanation will be required : — 

Stars shine. 

Leaves fall. 

Iron is useful. 

The carpet in my room is very dusty. 



THE SENTENCE. 29 

The meaning is here complete : something has been said 
or stated — a thought has been expressed. 

A thought can be expressed in two words ; as, — 

Peter repented. 
Dogs fight. 
Diamonds sparkle. 

Such are called naked sentences. They give the 
words necessary to a meaning, and all other words than 
these are enlargements ; as, Peter, who denied his mas- 
ter, repented bitterly. 

CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES. 

Sentences are classified in two ways, according to 
structure and according to use. 

First, as to structure: Notwithstanding the great 
variety of structure they exhibit, all sentences fall 
under one of three classes. They are simple, complex, 
or compound. 

A sentence that expresses only a single act or thought 
is said to be simple. There may be several things of 
which something is asserted, and the subject is then 
said to be compound : — 

Hope and fear are the bane of human life. 

There may be several things asserted of the subject, and 
the predicate is then said to be compound : — • 

Charity hopeth all things, believeth all things,, endureth all things. 

The modifiers may be compound : — 

A diligent and prudent man will be successful. 

Parts which do not modify each other are said to be 



30 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

co-ordinate, — that is, of equal order or rank ; as in 
the preceding sentence, or in the following : — 

The coach will leave the city in the morning, — before sunrise. 

The test of a simple sentence is, that it comprises only 
words and phrases. 

If the sentence is of the form, When the sun rose, 
the ship sailed, it is no longer simple, since it contains 
two acts of thought, — two distinct subjects, sun and 
ship, and two distinct predicates, rose and sailed, yet 
so put together as to form a whole. Another pecul- 
iarity is, that the first part, when the sun rose, in- 
dicates the time of sailing, and so modifies sailed as a 
temporal adverb. Such a sentence is said to be com- 
plex. 1 Hence a complex sentence consists of two or 
more simple sentences, one of which is principal and 
the others (clauses) subordinate. 

If the sentence is of the form, The sun rose, and 
the ship sailed, it is neither simple nor complex. It is 
not simple, because it contains more than one combina- 
tion of subject and predicate; it is not complex, because 
the statements composing it are grammatically inde- 
pendent of each other — neither modifies the other. 
Such a sentence is said to be compound. 2. Hence a com- 
pound sentence consists of two or more co-ordinate 
sentences. The co-ordinate parts of a compound sen- 
tence are called its members. The members themselves 
may be simple or complex : — 

(1) One generation blows bubbles, and another bursts them. 

(2) This part of knowledge is growing, and it will continue to 
grow till the subject is exhausted. 

1 Latin con, with, and plectere, to twist, = to tivist together. 

2 Latin con, with, and ponere, to place, = to place together. 



THE SENTENCE. 31 

The simple sentence with compound subject or predi- 
cate is often said to be a contracted equivalent, giving 
the meaning of two sentences in one. Thus : — 

I saw Fannie and Jessie = 

I saw Fannie and I saw Jessie. 

The sentence, however, cannot always be so resolved:- — 

Two and three are five. 

James and John carried the pail. 

According to structure, then, sentences may be 
divided thus : — 

A simple sentence is an independent proposition. 

A proposition contains but one subject and one predi- 
cate, either of which may be compound. 

A complex sentence is an independent proposition 
and one or more subordinate propositions. 

A compound sentence contains two or more inde- 
pendent propositions. 

The members of a compound sentence may be either 
simple or complex. 

Second, as to use : A sentence that merely asserts a 
fact or states a truth is declarative ; as, — 

The quality of mercy is not strained. 
Rose a nurse of ninety years ; 
Set his child upon her knee. 

The subject of assertion is sometimes made the sub- 
ject of inquiry. The sentence is then interrogative, 
formerly styled direct when it could be answered by 
yes or no ; and indirect when it could not be so 
answered ; the first being introduced by the verb or its 



32 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

auxiliary, the second by some interrogative term — pro- 
noun, adjective, or adverb : — 

Have you seen Henry ? 
Who defeated JBurgoyne ? 
Where was he defeated ? 
Which book have you ? 

In point of fact, however, these are all of the direct 
form, and a proper indirect question is a dependent one 
— a clause that involves a question without actually 
putting it : — 

Forbear to ask what to-morrow will bring forth. 

The sentence may be intended to originate some act, 
and it is then said to be imperative — the mode of its 
principal verb : — 

(1) Disturb his hours of rest with restless trances ; 
Afflict him in his bed with bedrid groans. 

(2) Forgive me. 

(3) Let us sing the praises of the King of Glory. 

Other and stronger forms of expressing obligation or 
compulsion are made by the use of shall and must: 
You shall go, You must go. 

The form in (3) is sometimes abridged by dropping 
the verb let [= permit], changing the object to the 
subject nominative, and the dependent infinitive to a 

finite : — 

Sing we the praises of our God. 
Come one, come all. 
Somebody call my wife. 
Ruin seize thee, ruthless king ! 

Since the imperative is the form of entreaty or desire, 
as well as of command, there is no valid objection to 
calling these exceptional forms imperative sentences, 



THE SENTENCE. 33 

and their verbs imperatives of the first or third person 
to agree with their nominative subjects. This seems 
preferable to expanding them into, — Let ruin [to] seize 
thee, or May ruin seize thee, etc. 

Any sentence that gives passionate expression to 
hope, joy, desire, fear, anger, grief, or pain is exclama- 
tory, exclam&tive : — 

How poor, how rich, how abject, how august, 
How complicate, how wonderful is man ! 

Generally it partakes of the interrogative form, and is 
introduced by who, what, or how : — 

Who would have thought it ! 
What a piece of work is man ! 
How grandly he moves ! 

Exclamative sentences must be carefully distinguished 
from exclamative phrases. 

The same sentence may be in one class and another 
in different uses- Thus : — 

Shut the door Imperative inform and meaning. 

Shut the door? .... Imperative inform, but interrogative. 
Shut the door! .... Imperative inform, but exclamative. 
How he shut the door ! . Exclamative in form and meaning. 

Henry is well Declarative inform and meaning. 

Henry is well? . Formally declarative, logically interrogative. 
Is Henry well? .... Interrogative inform and meaning. 

The character of the sentence, as a whole, is deter- 
mined by the essential part of it. Thus, though the 
following lines contain independent, exclamative ele- 
ments, the leading proposition is interrogative : — 

What ! you, that loved ! 

And I, that loved! 

Shall we begin to wrangle ? 



34 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Similarly, this line is declarative, though it includes an 
imperative clause : — 

Full loud she sang : " Come hither, love, to me." 

According to use sentences may be defined thus : — 
A declarative sentence states a fact. 
An interrogative sentence asks a question. 
• An imperative sentence expresses a command. 
An exclamatory sentence expresses an exclamation. 

EXERCISES. 

I. Classify the following sentences (1) as to structure, (2) as to 
use: — 
(1) They devoured the earth like an army of locusts. (2) He 
asked, " How came I to do this ?" (3) It is too stormy for the boat 
to leave to-night. (4) What kind of people first inhabited Eng- 
land? (5) Who ever achieved anything great in letters, arts, or 
arms, who was not ambitious? (6) How many soldiers were 
killed in battle? (7) We know not whence or whither it goes. 
(8) Come as the winds come when navies are stranded. (9) Slow, 
melting strains their queen's approach declare. (10) Morning 
dawned, and all fears were dispelled. (11) When morning dawned, 
all fears were dispelled. (12) Forbid it, Almighty God ! (13) I 
lisped in numbers, for the numbers came. (14) Having ridden 
up to the spot, the enraged officer struck the unfortunate man dead 
w T ith a single blow of his sword. (15) Life is real, life is earnest. 
(16) God sustains and governs the world. (17) We submit to 
the society of those who can inform us, but we seek the society 
of those we can inform. (18) Having decided what was to be 
done, he did it with might and main. (19) After performing these 
good offices, the stranger left. (20) When he had performed these 
good offices, he left. (21) He performed these good offices, and 
left. (22) The ship left at sunrise. (23) The ship left at the 
rising of the sun. (24) The ship left when the sun rose. (25) The 
sun rose, and the ship left. (26) For me to labor and for you to 
be idle would be unjust. (27) For me to labor while you are 
idle would be unjust. 



THE SENTENCE. 35 

2. Compose three complex interrogative sentences, and let the 

dependent clause denote time. 

3. Compose three exclamative phrases, and three exclamative 

sentences. 

4. Compose three compound sentences, in two of which one mem- 

ber shall be interrogative. 

5. Compose causal clauses to limit the following statements : — 
(1) We left the city. (2) Cultivate agreeable manners. (3) Be 

slow to promise. (4) Improve your time. (5) Never reveal 
secrets. 

6. Compose conditional clauses, to limit the following : — 

(1) We shall go. (2) The ice will melt. (3) He can perform 
the task. (4) The lecture will be postponed. (5) We shall be lost. 

7. Compose three simple sentences with compound subjects, and 

three with compound predicates. 

8. Compose five sentences containing the nominative absolute, 

then expand the absolute phrases into clauses. 

9. Compose a compound sentence, each of whose members shall 

be complex. 

10. Compose five sentences containing adverbial clauses of pur- 

pose, then abridge the clauses into infinitive phrases. 

11. Change from the interrogative to the declarative form : — 

(1) When can their glory fade? (2) O these women! these 
women ! Could that girl have been playing off any of her coquet- 
tish tricks? Was her encouragement of the poor pedagogue all a 
mere sham to secure the conquest of his rival? Heaven only 
knows, not I ! (3) And for what is all this appearance of bustle 
and terror? Is it because anything substantial is expected? 
(4) And where is he to exert his talents ? At home, to be sure, 
for where else can he obtain a profitable credit for their exertion ? 

ELEMENTS OF THE SENTENCE. 

An element in a sentence is a word or a group of 
words that performs a distinct office. 

The elements in the structure of sentences are words, 
phrases, and clauses. 



36 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

A phrase is two or more words in grammatical rela- 
tion, without making a proposition. 

A clause is a proposition used as a part of a sentence, 
and may be either dependent or independent. 

These elements are grouped into four classes ; namely, 
principal, subordinate, connecting, and independent. 

PRINCIPAL ELEMENTS. 

The principal elements are those necessary for the 
expression of a thought, — subject and predicate. 

The subject (by which is here meant the naked sub- 
ject) is either a noun or its equivalent: — 

Conversation enriches the understanding. 
The good must associate when the bad combine. 
To be innocent is to be not guilty. 
Reading is not the only way to knowledge. 
"J will try " has wrought wonders. 

The predicate (that is, the naked predicate) is — 

1. A verb : — 

^-.x «. t ( Responsibility sharpens our faculties. 

c I am here. 1 
(2) Composite. The palace should not scorn the cottage. 

2. A verb and an adjective (predicate adjective) : — 

Sweet are the uses of adversity. 

Iron is of great use = Iron is very useful. 

3. A verb and a noun (predicate nominative) : — 

Gray hairs are death's blossoms. 

To enjoy is to obey. 

Pilate's question was, " What is truth ? " 

1 Here, like an adjective, seems to complete am and, like an adverb, 
to modify it. From its form and usual office, however, we think it should 
in this sentence be called an adverbial modifier of am [= exist]. The ad- 
verb, in this and similar sentences, may also be regarded as modifying 
some predicate word understood. Thus: The sun is [gone] down. Gold 
is [present] there. 



THE SENTENCE. 37 

It is implied in the above statements and examples 
that the predicate consists of two factors — an assertive 
and an attributive. 1 The former is the life of the sen- 
tence — the engine that propels the train. It is called 
the copula, to indicate that it couples the main ideas of 
a statement : She is good. 

The copula, by pre-eminence, is be, which originally 
expressed breathing, then existence, as it does now 
sometimes : I am, God is. Gradually this meaning 
faded out, and the word came to be used frequently as 
a mere coupler, serving to bring two ideas into connec- 
tion : God is good. Both uses occur in the passage : 
" We believe that He is, and that He is the rewarder of 
them that diligently seek him." He who would be 
saved from hopeless confusion, however, will do well 
to remember that the verb be has radically the sense 
of exist. Victoria is queen, is at bottom equal to, 
Victoria exists queen. The man is dying, is no other 
than, The man exists in a dying condition ; and The 
man is dead, is neither more nor less than, The man 
(that is, his body) exists dead; for the existence [ex- 
stare, to stand forth] predicated by to be is predi- 
cable alike of things animate and inanimate. The 
copula expresses merely a relative, not an absolute, 
existence. Ptolemy is not alive, denies his existence 
relative to life, but implies it in the other sense — that 
he exists to us as a dead man can, by remembrance or 
tradition. 

1 The several authorized views respecting the nature of the predicate 
are (1) that the predicate is always a verb ; (2) that the predicate = copula 
+ attribute; (3) that the predicate is the attribute only. For a justifica- 
tion of the first view, see Welsh's Essentials of English, p. 129. The 
second is here recommended, however, as being sufficiently precise and 
practically the best. 



38 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Understanding, therefore, that be really declares a 
thing existent, we may correctly affirm that the copula 
is an implied or formal portion of every predicate. It 
is the first, when being and attribution — the essentials 
of the predicate — are expressed in one word ; as, Soc- 
rates speaks, where a certain act — that is, existence 
together with a certain condition of existence — is 
asserted. It is the second, when being and attribution 
are expressed in different words : — 







PREDICATE. 




Copula 


Attribute. 


(1) It 


is 


excellent 


(2) Gold 


is 


a metal 


(3) He 


is 


condemned 


(4) Socrates 


is (speaks) speaking 



The assertive element is affected, in (1) and (2), 
only by limitation ; in (3) and (4), by both limitation 
and expansion. Convenience, however, justifies us in 
treating these latter as units. Thus, ignoring in prac- 
tice the distinction which we make in theory, the term 
verb is applied equally to simple and composite forms. 
Grammatically, Birds fly = Birds are flying. 

Dismissing the historical fact that the assertive element 
denotes being, and confining our view to its superficial 
office as a coupler, we may accept the common statement 
that be is a verb of incomplete predication, requiring, 
under this aspect, something additional to form any 
completed sense. The addition may be variously desig- 
nated, as complement, supplement, or predicate attribute} 

1 Obviously, the attributive relation is not affected by position ; it may 
be assumed or it may be asserted — predicated. Wise is equally an attri- 
bute in the ivise man and The man is ivise (Mill's Logic, p. 57). For 
the asserted attribute, however, whether adjective or substantive, Professor 
Williams {Outlines of English Grammar, p. 56) recommends " predicative.' ' 



THE SENTENCE. 39 

A prepositional complement sometimes enters into, 
the structure of a verb-term: burn up [= consume], 
keep on [= continue], stand out [= resist], make up 
[= constitute], take up [= arrest]. Such compounds 
are often transitive in the fullest sense, as tested by the 
passive construction : His zeal was wondered-a£. The 
servant was spoken-fo by his master. 

Likewise, it will be remembered, a few other verbs 
which share the office of the copula as ties, yet are 
somewhat more, are called copulatives : — 

(1) He seemed ... (a monster). 

(2) He became ... (a hero). 

(3) He lived . . . (an apostle), and died ... (a martyr). 

(4) He appeal's, looks ... (a rascal). 

(5) He was thought, deemed, called, named ... (a villain). 

(6) He was made, appointed, created . . . (president). 

Here the entire attribute includes the noun, and that 
part of the verb which is not mere copula — the ideas 
of seeming, becoming, thinking, believing, etc. Such 
copulatives are also known as apposition verbs, because 
their complements are in apposition predicatively with 
their subjects : 1 — 

EXERCISES. 

Name the principal elements in each sentence. State whether 
the subject is a noun, or an equivalent phrase or clause. State 
whether the complex idea of the predicate — being and attribution 
— is expressed in one word or in several ; if the latter, whether 
the form is to be considered a composite verb, or a verb (copula- 
tive) and its complement : — 

1 Between he, a professed Catholic, and He is a professed Catholic, 
there is no other discoverable difference than that the identity signified by 
the appositive is, in the former, taken for granted, while in the latter it is 
affirmed. 



40 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

1. I love to lose myself in other men's minds. 

2. The Alps, piled in cold and still sublimity, are an image 

of despotism. 

3. Extreme admiration puts out the critic's eye. 

4. No scene is continually loved except one enriched by joy- 

ful human labor. 

5. The report is, that he is a traitor. 

6. Seen at a little distance, as she walked across the church- 

yard and down the village street, she seemed to be 
attired in pure white, and her hair looked like a dash 
of gold on a lily. 

7. The evil of silencing the expression of an opinion is, that 

it is robbing the human race. 

8. He that allows himself to be a worm must not complain 

if he is trodden on. 

9. To speak perfectly well, one must feel that he has got to 

the bottom of his subject. 

10. All those things for which men plough, build, or sail, obey 

virtue. 

11. Of all sad words of tongue or pen, 

The saddest are these : " It might have been." 

12. To be at war with one we love, 
Doth work like madness in the brain. 

SUBORDINATE ELEMENTS. 

It has been shown that the simplest form of the sen- 
tence consists of a subject and predicate. Each of these, 
however, may be enlarged by other words ; as, the fire ; 
the bright fire ; the brightly blazing fire ; the brightly 
blazing fire which was seen in the distance. 

The subject is enlarged — 

1. By an adjective : Much anxiety had shortened her life. 

2. By an adjective equivalent : — 

(1) A possessive : Mamie's anxiety shortened her life. 

(2) An appositive : Peter the hermit was a Crusader ; Her 

answer, " Seven are ive" was repeated. 



THE SENTENCE. 41 

(3) A prepositional phrase: The door on your right hand is 

open. 

(4) A verbal phrase : Having spent its fury, the sea became 

quiet. 

(5) A relative clause : A man who is provident is respected. 

Evidently the predicate nominative and the object may 
be similarly enlarged. 

The predicate is enlarged — - 

1. By an object : — 

(1) Direct — He defies him] He said that he would go. 

(2) Indirect — They gave him his supper. 

2. By an adverb : He rose early. 

3. By an adverbial equivalent : — 

(1) Prepositional phrase : He cried with a loud voice. 

(2) Clause : I will go, if it does not rain. 

(3) Verbal : She went along singing. 

(4) Verbal phrase: He is believed to have been wronged; 

She stood wringing her hands. 

(5) Adverbial noun, denoting time, distance, value, direction, 

and the like : He sat an hour ; The tree was a hundred 
feet high ; It is worth a dollar. 

The adverbial noun is a remnant of Old English, 
which had special case-endings for such uses of the 
noun. 1 

Of modifiers, some affect the subject and predicate 
directly : as black, yesterday, or pleasantly, in the fol- 
lowing sentence : — 

The black squirrel, on the oak tree in the meadow behind the 
barn, was chatting pleasantly yesterday with a gray squir- 
rel on an ash tree in an adjoining field. 



1 The noun in these uses is sometimes said to be in the objective case 
without a governing word, or to be governed by a preposition understood. 



42 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Others affect the subject and predicate indirectly. Thus, 
oak and in the meadow behind the barn, limit squirrel, by 
first limiting tree. Likewise, in an adjoining field first 
limits tree, then squirrel through tree ; then, through 
squirrel, it limits was chatting. 

Since these modifiers merely explain and depend upon 
the principal parts, they are subordinate. Therefore, 
subordinate elements modify principal elements. 

In picking out the modifiers of subject and predicate, 
those words whose meanings are closely united must go 
together. Thus the and black are separate modifiers; 
but as behind the barn is a modifier of meadow, and 
in the meadow is a modifier of tree, and on the oak tree 
is a modifier of squirrel, we should say that squirrel 
is modified, not merely by on the oak tree, but by on the 
oak tree in the meadow behind the barn. Whatever is 
modified is base with reference to the term that 
modifies. 

Subordinate elements, as commonly divided, are of 
three kinds : — 

Adjective, if they modify nouns. 

Objective, if they are objects of transitive verbs. 

Adverbial, (1) if they modify adjectives or adverbs; 

(2) if they modify verbs, and are not objects. 1 

# 

When the predicate is a copulative verb and attribute, 
it is well to consider that the modifier (attribute) re- 
lates to the subject, and is therefore adjective. In the 
sentence, He stood musing, the attribute modifies the 
verb only relatively. 

1 Upon closer view, however, this classification is seen to be only 
approximate. An objective element is merely a variety of the adverbial, 
not a separate or co-ordinate class. 



THE SENTENCE. 43 

If itself ud modified, the modifier is said to be sim- 
ple: — 

(1) He loves wisdom. 

(2) He is a lover of wisdom. 

(3) We hear that he is wise. 

If modified, it is complex : — 

(1) He built houses of stone. 

(2) He ran with wonderful rapidity. 

(3) He said thai the planets revolve, a well known fact 

If consisting of two or more co-ordinate parts, it is com- 
pound : — 

(1) Large and beautiful rivers. 

(2) Men of wisdom and of power. 

(3) They decide that you should come and that he should go. 

Either element, it is evident, may be modified, and thus 
become complex. 

A modifier, however extended, is said to be of the 
word form, if its base (the fundamental portion) is a 
single term; of the phrase form, if its base is a phrase; 
of the clause form, if its base is a clause. Not infre- 
quently, a base that is primary with reference to a given 
modifier becomes, in union with such modifier, a com- 
plex base with reference to a second modifier. Thus, 
in fragrant red roses, the primary base is roses — the 
secondary, red roses; for fragrant modifies, not roses, 
but the complex idea in red roses. 

Subordination, whether of modifiers in general, or of 
clauses in particular, may be of various degrees: — 

History tells us (1) that Socrates said (2) that he was declared by 
the oracle to be the wisest of men (3) merely because he knew 
(4) that he knew nothing. 

Here the object of the principal verb consists of four 



44 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

clauses, of which (1) is modified by (2), (2) by (3), 
and (3) by (4). Observe that merely throws its 
force upon the complex thought of (3) and (4) : 
Merely because . . . nothing — merely for this reason 
= for this only. 

Finally, we have to consider the closeness of connec- 
tion between a word and its modifier — whether the 
latter is necessary to the main thought or only explana- 
tory. Thus, compare : — 

f He who is his own lawyer has a fool for a client. 

1. <J There are moral principles slumbering in the most depraved. 

[_ Swift asserts that no man ever wished himself younger. 

( I dislike all misery, voluntary or involuntary. 

2. «J Man, who is born of woman, is of few days. 

[_ Spiritual natures, to grow in power, demand spiritual liberty. 

The italicized parts in (1) could not be omitted without 
serious injury to the sense or the utter destruction of 
it; those in (2), while they are truly explanatory, are 
not important or essential to the meaning. The former 
are therefore said to be restrictive, the latter, paren- 
thetical. 

EXERCISES. 

1. Distinguish between — He painted the blue box, and, He painted 

the box blue. 

2. Give the entire modifier of distinguish. Is this of the word, 

phrase, or clause form ? What is its office ? 

3. Give the different shades of meaning in — Dido is queen; 

Dido, a queen, walks ; Dido walks a queen ; Dido walks 
queenlike ; Dido walks majestically. 

4. Write a sentence containing, with reference to some modifier, a 

complex base. 

5. Write a sentence containing a complex modifier of the phrase 

form. Write one with a complex modifier of the clause form. 



THE SENTENCE. 45 

6. Determine the subordinate parts ; whether they are adjective, 

objective, or adverbial elements ; whether they are of the 
word, phrase, or clause form; whether simple, complex, or 
compouud : — 

(1) We live in better times. (2) My connections, once the 
source of happiness, now embitter the reverse of my fortune. 
(3) He has a mind to discourse on that theme. (4) A mind at 
liberty to reflect on its own observations, seldom fails of enter- 
tainment to itself. (5) Toward night the schoolmaster walked 
over to the cottage where his little friend lay sick. (6) Who can 
tell when he sets forth to wander, whither he may be driven by 
the uncertain current of existence, or when he may return? 
(7) What means this martial array, if its purpose be not to force 
us into submission? (8) Pope was not content to satisfy, he 
desired to excel, and therefore always endeavored to do his best. 
(9) He made them give up their spoils. 

(10) Money and man a mutual falsehood show. 

(11) Some pious drops the closing eye requires. 

(12) Oh ! she is 

Ten times more gentle than her father's crabbed. 

(13) O, guide me to the humble cell 
Where resignation loves to dwell. 

(14) With sanguine drops the walls are rubied round, 
And nature in the tangles soft involved 

Of death-like sleep. 

7. Are the italicized parts restrictive or parenthetical ? Why ? 

(1) Bion said, "Know thyself." 

(2) Death is the season which brings our affections to the test, 

(3) Ores are natural compounds, being produced by nature. 

(4) He, a professed Catholic, imprisoned the Pope. 

(5) Of all our senses, sight is the most perfect. 

(6) Her crystal lamp the evening star has lighted. 

(7) On the fifth day of the moon, which, according to the cus- 

tom of my forefathers, I always keep holy. 

(8) The old oaken bucket, the iron-bound bucket, the moss- 

covered bucket, which hung in the well. 



46 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



CONNECTING ELEMENTS. 

Connectives are words which unite the elements of 
sentences. They are conjunctions, prepositions, rela- 
tive pronouns, and conjunctive adverbs. 

Connectives are either co-ordinate or subordinate. 
A co-ordinate connective unites grammatical elements 
of equal rank ; as, — 

(1) Boys and girls study arithmetic. (2) Why he went and 
why he returned do not appear from the statement. (3) She 
would sing, dance or play. (4) John studied history and grammar. 
(5) Mary knew that she could solve the problem and that she 
would get the prrze. (6) Weary and weak, they went home. 
(7) Will you go with John or with Mary? (8) The messenger 
reported that the army had been defeated and that it was in full 
retreat. (9) They fought long and well. (10) Five years ago 
and from this same platform he had addressed the multitude. 
(11) Come when the blessed seals that close the pestilence are 
broke, and crowded cities wail its stroke. (12) James read the 
book, but William played in the garden. 

A subordinate connective unites a phrase or clause 
to the word modified ; as, — 

(1) The man who was sick has recovered. (2) A boy in school 
whistled. (3) He was slain by his slave. (4) After the rain had 
fallen the wall caved in. (5) The pupil did not know why his 
father had written the note. 

In each case the elements united are not of equal rank. 



INDEPENDENT ELEMENTS. 

Words are often used that do not combine with other 
words to modify or limit them, yet they help to express 
feelings, and thus have emotive or rhetorical value 



THE SENTENCE. 47 

in the sentence. The true type of this class is the 
interjection. For the purpose of enforcing or soften- 
ing, or otherwise affecting the assertion, many expres- 
sions are thrown into what is said. 

A noun, for example, may be independent — that is, 
without grammatical connection : — - 

1. By address (vocative) ; as, — 

I will, sir. 

Ye spirits 
That tend on mortal thoughts, unsex me here. 

2. By exclamation ; as, — 

What nonsense ! 

Mortimer ! Who talks of Mortimer ? 

3. By pleonasm; as, — 

The Pilgrim Fathers, where are they ? 

4. By absolute construction ; as, — 

The signal being given, we started. 
He flies, wild terror in his look. 

Such a word is said to be used absolutely, because, being 
without any case-form or connective to denote its rela- 
tion, it appears to stand as if ' cut loose ' from the 
sentence. Nominatives absolute, however, while they 
do not grammatically depend on any other word in the 
sentence, are logically adverbial or adjective modifiers. 
Thus : — 

Spring coming, the flowers will bloom = 
When spring comes, the flowers will bloom = 
The flowers will bloom in springtime. 

Finally, w r ords that are merely introductory, phrases 
and clauses that are of the general character of modals, 
distantly connected perhaps with the assertion, yet un- 



48 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

necessary to the sense, and unrelated, are treated as 
grammatically independent : — 

(1) There is no place like home. 

(2) What is there that he can not do? 

(3) His conduct, generally speaking, was good. 

(4) To tell the truth, I doubted my ability to succeed. 

(5) Well, this is the forest of Arden. 

(6) The ship leaps, as it were, from billow to billow. 

(7) Religion — who can doubt it? — is the noblest of themes. 

The pupil must not fall into the error of judging that 
interruptive or parenthetical parts are always indepen- 
dent. The proper test is, not the accident of position 
or punctuation, but the connection of thought. Thus, 
the following parenthesis 1 is both grammatically and 
logically related to the leading verb : — 

I do beseech you 
(Chiefly that I may set it in my prayers), 
What is your name ? 

Often the only office of the curves is emphasis. They 
serve merely to draw particular attention to the matter 
within them. Again, cried and said,, in the following 
passages, are equally governing verbs : — 

(1) "Make me a cottage in the vale," she cried, 
" Where I may mourn and pray." 

(2) And all his sorrow to the moon he told, 

And said, " Surely when thou art horned new, 
I shall be glad — if all the world be true." 

The order of the latter is usual ; of the former, trans- 
posed. To say that any organic relation is affected by 
the transposition, is absurd. Without changing the 
sense or metre, we can read : — 

1 Greek para, aside, and enthesis, insertion ; a word, phrase, or state- 
ment inserted aside in a sentence complete without it. 



THE SENTENCE. 49 

" And sure," he said, " when thou art horned new 
I shall be glad — if all the world be true." 

Another erroneous notion is, that it is without gram- 
matical connection in such forms as — 

(1) It can not be that thou art gone. 

(2) Is it so small a thing, 

To have enjoyed the sun : 
To have lived light in the spring; 
To have loved, to have thought, to have done? 

So far from being a superfluous element, it is here an 
essential — the grammatical subject, with which the 
clause in (1) and the infinitives in (2) are logically in 
apposition. The appositives explain what the pronoun 
vaguely or indefinitely represents. A similar construc- 
tion is seen in i, John, am going; or i~, Alexander, 
king of Macedonia, make this decree. Compare with 
either : — 

It, to see the sun, is pleasant = 
It is pleasant to see the sun. 

This task, to teach the young, is delightful = 
It is a delightful task to teach the young. 



EXERCISES. 

Resolve the following into principal, subordinate, connecting, and 
independent elements : — 

1. 'Tis the mind that makes the body rich. 

2. Now, Hamlet, where's Polonius ? 

3. God willing, I shall persevere in my attempt. 

4. Properly speaking, there is no such thing as chance. 

5. He that hath ears to hear, let him hear. 

6. Adders and Serpents, let me breathe awhile! 

7. It is a good thing to give thanks unto the Lord. 



50 ENGLISH GBAMMAR. 



QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW. 

1. What is language ? Literal meaning of the word language ? 

2. Compare written and spoken language. How do they agree ? 

3. What are parts of speech? What is implied? 

4. Define a sentence. What is meant by the unit of thought ? 

5. Give the classification of sentences according to their struct- 
ure, and define each kind. Illustrate. 

6. Give the classification of sentences according to their use, 
and define each kind. Illustrate. 

7. What are the elements in the structure of sentences? 

8. Difference between principal and subordinate elements. 

9. What are the principal elements of a sentence ? 

10. Write six different sentences in which the subject of each 
sentence is a noun or its equivalent. 

11. Six different sentences in which the subject of each is a 
phrase. Six in which the subject of each is a clause. 

12. Write five different sentences in which the predicate is a 
single verb. 

13. Five different sentences in which the predicate is a verb 
and a noun in the objective case. 

14. Five different sentences in which the predicate is a verb 
and an adjective. 

15. Five different sentences in which the predicate is a verb 
and a noun in the nominative case. 

16. Five sentences in which the predicate is a verb and a 
phrase. Five in which the predicate is a verb and a clause. 

17. In how many ways may the subject of a sentence be modi- 
fied ? Illustrate your answer. 

18. In how many ways may the verb of a sentence be modified ? 
Illustrate your answer. 

19. When is the modifier simple ? Complex? Compound? 

20. What is a co-ordinate connective ? A subordinate? 

21. In what four ways may elements be independent? 



ANALYZING SENTENCES. 51 



CHAPTER IV. 
Analyzing Sentences. 

Analysis 1 in grammar is the process of breaking up a 
sentence into its elements and then classifying them. 

The sentence should be first examined to see whether 
it is simple, complex, or compound. Secondly, whether 
it is declarative, interrogative, imperative, or exclam- 
atory. If simple, distinguish (1) the subject ; (2) the 
modifiers of the subject; (3) the predicate, whether 
simple or composite verb, or copula and its complement ; 
(4) modifiers of the predicate. 

The analysis of a complex sentence differs from that 
of a simple one in no respect, save that clauses do the 
duty of single words or phrases, and, having been 
treated first as single parts of speech, are in turn to be 
resolved into their elements. If the sentence is com- 
pound, its co-ordinate sentences (members) are to be 
analyzed separately : — 



(1) 




The house fell 

and 

great was the fall thereof. 


(2) 




He goes, 

but 

it is intended that I should remain 




[ = 


= it, that I should remain, is intended]. 



1 Greek ana, up, and lusis, loosing. 



52 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Words omitted should be supplied. Thus : — 

He is as tall as I [am tall]. 

I will go, if [it is] possible. 

Oh, [if] might I see death and return again, how happy were I then ! 



THE ORDER OF ANALYSIS. 

1. State whether the sentence is simple, complex, or 
compound. 

2. Whether it is declarative, interrogative, impera- 
tive, or exclamatory. 

3. The principal elements. 

4. The subject and its modifiers. 

5. The verb and its modifiers. 

6. The analysis of phrases and clauses. 

7. The pure connectives, if any. 

8. Independent elements. 

ILLUSTRATION. 

1. The habit of promptness must be taught to children. 
Analysis. — A simple declarative sentence. The principal ele- 
ments are habit and must be taught. 

Habit is the grammatical subject, and it is modified by the word 
the, and by the phrase of promptness. 

The verb must be taught is the grammatical predicate, and is 
modified by the phrase to children. 

The phrase of promptness is an adjective element, and the phrase 
to children is an adverbial element. Of and to are connecting 
elements. 

A shorter form may be used as follows : — 

2. The potent rod of Amram's son in Egypt's evil day, 
Waved round the coast, up-called a pitchy cloud 

Of locusts, warping in the eastern wind. 



ANALYZING SENTENCES. 



53 



Class. 


Subject. 


Modifiers. 


Predicate. 


Obj. Mod. 


Adv. Mod. 


Simple 


rod 


the 


up-called 


a 


in 


Declarative 




potent, 




pitchy- 


Egypt's 






of Amram's 




cloud 


evil 






son, 




of 


day, 






waved 




locusts, 








round 




warping 








the 




in the 








coast, 




eastern 
wind. 





Note. — The elements are simply grouped in this scheme. For close 
and careful analysis, at first, dispose of each element exhaustively. 

3. When I heard that the train had started before I arrived at 
the station where we had agreed to meet, I at once telegraphed. 



Class. 


Subject. 


Modifiers. 


Predicate. 


Obj. Comp. 


Adv. Mod. 


Complex 
Declarative 


I 




telegraphed 


.... 


at once 

when I 

... to meet 


Prin. Sen. = 

i" telegraphed 

at once. 


a 




a 




it 


Clauses : 
when I 
heard 


I 


..... 


heard 


that the 

train 

had started 

before 
... to meet 


when 


that the 

train had 

started 


train 


the 


had started 




before I 
arrived at 
the station 
... to meet 


before I 
arrived 
at the 
station 


I 


.... 


arrived 


.... 


at the sta- 
tion where 
... to 
meet 


where we 

had agreed 

to meet 


we 




had agreed 


.... 


to meet 
where 



Analysis. — A complex declarative sentence. Principal ele- 
ments: subject,/; predicate, telegraphed. Telegraphed is modified 
by the phrase at once and by the dependent adverbial clause when 
I heard that the train had started . . . to meet 



54 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



The dependent adverbial clause is introduced by the connective 
when. Subject, /; predicate, heard ; objective complement, that the 
train . . . to meet. 

The objective complement, that the train had started, is a de- 
pendent clause introduced by the connective that; subject, train, 
is limited by the, and had started is modified by the dependent 
adverbial clause before I had arrived at the station. At the station 
and where we had agreed to meet modify had arrived. 

In the dependent adverbial clause, when 1 heard that the train had 
started, when performs two offices, — a connective and an adverbial 
modifier. It connects telegraphed and heard, and modifies telegraphed. 

The clauses are analyzed as sentences : the connectives are when, 
before, at, to. 

4. I am monarch of all I survey, 

My right there is none to dispute ; 
From the center all round to the sea, 
I am lord of the fowl and the brute. 



Class. 


Sub- 
ject. 


Modifiers. 


Predicate. 


Modifiers. 


Compound 
Declarative 








Objective. 


Adverbial 


Adjective. 


Members : 
1. I am 

monarch 
of all I 
survey. 


I 


.... 


am 
monarch 






of all 
I survey 






Clause — 














[that] J 
survey. 


I 


.... 


survey- 


[that] 






2. My right 
there is 
none to 
dispute 


none 


to dispute 
my right 


is 








3. I am 

lord of 
the fowl 
and the 
brute from 
the center 
all round 
to the sea. 


I 


.... 


am 
lord 


. . . 


from the 

center, all 

round to 

the sea. 


of the 

fowl 

and the 

brute 



ANALYZING SENTENCES. 55 

5. That orbed maiden with white fire laden, 

Whom mortals call the moon, 
Glides glimmering o'er my fleece-like floor, 
By the midnight breezes strewn. 

Analysis. — A complex declarative sentence. 

(1) maiden subject. 

(2) glides predicate. 

i (a) that orbed \ . . , . 

, ox \ ,' , T ., 7 . ^ f adiective enlargements 

(o) < (b) laden with white fire > „y n 

1 (c) whom mortals call the moon ) 

(d) mortals subject of (c). 

(e) call . predicate of (c). 

(/) t^owi $e moon . objective enlargement of (c). 

(g) glimmering 

(h) o'er my fleece-like floor , 

strewn by the midnight 

breezes 



(*) 



adverbial enlargements 
of (2). 



ANALYZING SENTENCES BY DIAGRAM. 

A diagram is a picture showing the relations of all 
the elements in a sentence. 

In the following analyses by diagram, a single 
bracket, [, is used for subject and predicate verb with 
their modifiers, or enlargements ; and two [ ] for words 
supplied. A double bar, ||, separates the direct object 
from the predicate verb, and a bar, |, the adjective and 
adverbial modifiers from the words modified. The sign 
\ separates the copulative from the noun, adjective, 
phrase, or clause that forms the predicate attribute, and 
\\ from whatever is the objective attribute or comple- 
ment. This, \ \ , encloses an appositive with its 
modifiers. A brace, \, unites two or more subordinate 
elements, that with respect to each other are co-ordi- 
nate. Compound elements, as in examples 10, 11, 12, 



56 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

and 27, are united by . ..., and the connectives, ex- 
pressed or understood, written upon this line. An 
introductory word is underscored, and a word doing 
double duty, as a relative pronoun or a conjunctive 

adverb, is underscored with Curves, or marks 

of parentheses, ( ), enclose independent elements. An 
underscore and a curve are used to connect a modifier 
with its base under the circumstances shown in 5, 9, 
and 25. The first word of a sentence is capitalized 
wherever it may fall in the diagram, and the arrange- 
ment of words in the sentence is kept as far as possible. 

1. Why will people exaggerate ? 

(people 

I will exaggerate | Why 

2. For us to know our faults is profitable. 

For 
us I to know || faults | our 
is \ profitable 

3. The pitch of the musical note depends upon the rapidity of 

vibration. 



pitch | j TLc 



The 

' ( musical 



depends |uponrapidity| f*^^ 

It is easy to find fault. 

Tit \ to find || fault \ 
|_is \ easy 

Genius can breathe freely only in the atmosphere of freedom. 

t Genius 
can breathe | j freel y {the 

tin atmosphere | j of freedom 

( onl y 



ANALYZING SENTENCES. 



57 



him 
go | to city | the 



6. They told him to go to the city. 

("They 

Lid { i p>] 

( || to go 

7. They expected him to come home. 

[They 

I expected || him \\ to come | home 

8. She went along singing a song. 

TShe 

wentj \ sing^g || song | a 
L ( | along 

9. He is certainly on the verge of madness. 

THe 



is | on verge | ] e 
~ 1 ( of madness 



"(certainly 



10. All forms of the lever, and all the principal kinds of hinges, 
are found in the body. 



forms 



( All 

( of lever | the 

f all 
the 

principal 
of hinges 
are found | in body | the 



kinds | < 



11. The hero of the Book of Job came from a strange land and of 
a strange parentage. 



hero 



'< 



The 

of Book of Job 



came 



H3 : 



(the 

from land | ! a 

( strange 

of parentage I } 

— ( strange 



58 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

12. The horses and the cattle were fastened in the' same stables 
and were fed with abundance of hay and grain. 



cattle | the 

were fastened | in stables | ■] 



same 



were fed I with abundance N gi° ^ . 
. (' 3 : [of] grain 

13. At the opening of the thirteenth century, Oxford took and 
held rank with the greatest schools of Europe. 



Oxford 



rthe 



— X J ,At0Peningl 1 of century | { t t rteenth 
: y\ .the 

held / ^ || rank | with schools | < greatest 



( of Europe 



14. Gold is heavier than iron. 
TGold 





_is \ 


heavier | 


iron 
[is \ heavy] | than 


15. He were no lion, were not Romans hinds. 




He 




were 


\lion | no 
if 




( 




"Romans 




were \ hi 


rids 




(not 


16. That the earth is a sphere is easily proved 




That 
["earth | the 




I is \ sphere | a 




is pre 


>ved | easil 


f 



ANALYZING SENTENCES. 



59 



17. " Where is Abel, thy brother ? " smote the ears of the guilty 

Cain. 

t" Abel \ brother | thy \ 
is | Where " 

smote || ears I { t] f . ( the 

L- (of Cam | {guilty 

18. I bought what was worth a dollar a pound. 

p ["[which] 

[bought || [that] \ was ^ worth 

L- 7 < dollar | a 

( pound | a 

19. As ye sow, so shall ye reap. 



shall reap | so 



y e 

sow I As 



20. Where he goes, there go I. 

p 

I go | there 



speaks | so | 



he 

goes | Where 

21. Just as he thinks, so the upright man speaks. 
■ J the 

( upright 
he 
thinks | as | Just 

22. That orbed maiden with white fire laden, 

Whom mortals call the moon, 
Glides glimmering o'er my fleece-like floor, 
By the midnight breezes strewn, 
f That 
orbed 

laden | with fire | white 
T mortals 
[_call || Whom \\ moon | the 

glimmering 

o'er floor | <j fleece-like rthe 

I strewn | By breezes | \ mid- 

l nio'ht 



maiden | -< 



i 



Glides 



60 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



23. Religion — who can doubt it? — is the noblest of themes for 
the exercise of intellect. 



([: 



who 

can doubt || it 
r Religion 
is \ noblest I \ 



(the 
I of themes | for exercise \ of intellect 



24. Be temperate in youth, or you will have to be abstinent in old 



Be \ temperate 

^ . (in youth 

o i 

Tyou 
will have \ to be \ abstinent 



(in age j old 



25. It is called so, but improperly. 



It 

is called | so 

■+=> i 

i 

is called I so 



(improperly 
26. One generation blows a bubble, another bursts it. 



["generation | One 
[_ blows || bubble | a 



another 
bursts I! it 



ANALYZING SENTENCES. 



61 



27. Once there was a quarrel between the eyes and the nose about 

the spectacles, which (so said the nose) were undoubtedly 

intended for him, and not for his two neighbors, the eyes. 

there /rnose|the\ 

a eyes | the \Lsaid | so / 

between <f § ; 

\noee | the 

the 

which 



quarrel | 



about spectacles | < 73 



were intended 

[which] 

[were intended] | 



was I Once 



j undoubtedly 
» for him 

not 

for neighbors 



I his 
j two 
\ eyes J the\ 



EXERCISES FOR ANALYSIS AND DIAGRAMS. 

1. What I have been taught I have forgotten ; what I know I 

have guessed. 

2. There was an English poet who speaks of the dim, religious 

light transmitted through painted glass. 

3. Just as there comes a warm sunbeam into every cottage win- 

dow, so comes a lovebeam of God's care and pity for every 
separate need. 

4. It is not necessary to plow and sow fools — they grow of 

themselves. 

5. Silence is a figure of speech, unanswerable, short, cold, but 

terribly severe. 

6. Faith that asks no questions kills the soul and stifles the 

intellect. 

7. Enthusiasm is the leaping lightning not to be measured by 

the horse power of the understanding. 

8. Labor is the divine law of our existence ; repose is desertion 

and suicide. 

9. If I can put one touch of a rosy sunset into the life of any 

man or woman, I shall feel that I have worked with God. 

10. They are never alone who are accompanied with noble thoughts. 

11. The night has a thousand eyes and the day but one, 

Yet the light of the bright world dies with the dying sun ; 
The mind has a thousand eyes and the heart but one, 
Yet the light of a whole life dies when love is done. 

F. VV. BOURDILLON. 



62 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



CHAPTER V. 

Parts of Speech. — Nouns Classified. 

Just as there are different kinds of roses, lilies, or 
apples, so each of the eight great classes of words may 
be divided into other classes. Thus, in the sentences — 

Emily is 'the oldest daughter of the family, 
London is the largest city in the world, 

Emily and daughter are simply different names for 
the same person; London and city are likewise ap- 
plied to the same object. But daughter is a name 
that belongs to Emily and each of her sisters — it 
belongs to all girl-children ; and city is the name of 
all places of sufficient size — it is the name of every one 
of a class. Emily, on the contrary, is a word used to 
distinguish one member of the family from the rest — 
it is her own individual name ; and London is a name 
by which one particular city is distinguished from other 
cities. 

All nouns, therefore, are either class names or indi- 
vidual names. 

Hence nouns are divided into two great classes, proper 
nouns and common nouns, 

A proper noun is a name given to some one particu- 
lar or individual person, animal, place, or thing; as, 
Ccesar, Fido, London, Alps. 



NOUNS CLASSIFIED. 63 

A common noun is a name owned in common by all 
things of the same sort, kind, or class; as, daughter, 
bird, river. 

The pupil must bear in mind that here, as elsewhere, 
everything depends upon use — the class to which a 
noun belongs depends entirely upon the duty it per- 
forms in each particular case. Thus White and Long- 
fellow point out individuals, white and long fellow do 
not. Sea is a common name, and dead is a common 
quality ; but if we wish to combine these two in order 
to point out a particular object, this peculiar use makes 
them in every sense proper, — Dead Sea. Most moun- 
tains are green, but some are especially so ; and custom 
says that the latter shall be known as the Green Moun- 
tains. Providence means simply care, and therefore in 
itself is a common noun ; but when it is used to denote 
the Creator of the world, it is in that connection a proper 
noun, and this different use is, in writing, made known 
to the eye by beginning the word with a larger letter. 



CLASSES OF COMMON NOUNS. 

Common nouns are divided into four classes : — 

1. Collective nouns. 

2. Abstract nouns. 

3. Material nouns. 

4. Verbal or participial nouns. 

A collective noun is the name of a number of indi- 
viduals taken together and spoken of as a single object ; 
as, army, fleet, nation, court, jury, congregation, society, 
flock, committee. 



64 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

An abstract noun is the name of a quality or prop- 
erty of some object, considered apart from the object 
to which it belongs. Thus, chalk is white, solid, rough 
or smooth, useful, etc. These words tell us of what sort. 
The names of these qualities are whiteness, solidity, 
roughness or smoothness, usefulness, etc. Similarly: — 

Have courage and patience. 

Her friendship is ennobling. 

His generosity Won him many friends. 

Remark. — A concrete name is a name which stands for a thing 
with all its attributes, qualities, or properties ; as, flower, sun, 
army, boy, James. An abstract name is a name which stands for 
some one property, quality, or attribute of a thing ; as, the beauty 
of the flower ; the warmth of the sun ; the strength of the army ; 
the innocence of the boy ; the honesty of James. 

Abstract nouns are by nature singular. When used in 
the plural, they become common nouns. For instance, 
in the expression, the color of the sea, color is abstract ; 
in the expression, the colors of the rainbow, colors is a 
class name, a common noun. 

A material noun is the name of a material substance ; 
as, iron, brass, zinc, copper, wheat, clay, tea, brandy, 
water, etc. 

Remark. — The material noun, properly so considered, is a 
complete and exhaustive collection of one material. In this respect 
it is unlike the collective noun, which includes a number, greater 
or less, of objects of the same kind in the collection, but not all 
existing objects of the same kind. Gold is the name for all gold, 
existing everywhere; hence, we do not say golds. Army means a 
number of men considered together in one collection, but not all 
men ; and there may be many such collections ; hence, we may 
properly speak of armies. 



NOUNS CLASSIFIED. 65 

The verbal noun is the name of an action or state of 
being. It includes the present infinitive and the parti- 
cipial infinitive. (These will be more fully explained 
in the chapter on verbs.) 

Examples : — 

We are fond of reading. 
Giving is better than receiving. 
To give is better than to receive. 
I do not like being deceived. 
Without being very much surprised. 

EXERCISES. 

1. Fill in the blanks of the first group with collective nouns ; of 

the second, with verbal nouns ; of the third, with abstract 
nouns : — 

(1) A of girls. 

A of Indians. 

meets in December. 

was organized in July. 

(2) AVe dislike . 

are necessary. 

is forbidden. 

I like . 

(3) Cultivate -. 

shall not be forgotten. 

He expressed his . 

His was great. 

ruins many. 

2. Tell the difference between the nouns in each of the following 

expressions : — 

(1) A bunch of grapes. 

(2) A group of girls. 

(3) The weight of the lead. 

(4) The laughing of the knot of boys. 

(5) The master of the school. 

(6) Punishment for having lied. 



66 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

3. Write or repeat the names of qualities expressed by harsh, small, 

truthful, cruel, kind, long, strong, glad, noble, bold, dark, pru- 
dent, patient, distant, silent, wise, true, pure, honest, just. 

4. Tell all you can about each noun in — 

At the time of Braddock's defeat, an Indian chief named 
Pontiac had seen the red-coats running away before his 
own men. Being a man of great courage and skill, he laid 
a plan to unite all the tribes of his race, and to drive the 
English out of America. First he tried to take Detroit, 
which was then only a fort; but he failed, and his con- 
spiracy broke down. Soon after, he was murdered, in a 
drunken frolic, by another Indian. 

MODIFICATION OF NOUNS. 

Some words, you may have noticed, change their form 
to express a change of use and meaning. Thus, The 
tree falls, becomes The trees fall, when the word tree 
is required to denote more than one ; and this change 
requires a corresponding change in the verb from falls 
to fall. The tree falls, becomes The tree fell, to in- 
dicate that the act of falling is not now going on, but 
took place in some time gone by. He struck me, be- 
comes I struck him, to indicate that the one who in- 
flicted the stroke in the first case, endures the stroke in 
the second. Compare: I met Robert who had grown to 
be six feet high, with, I met Robert whom I recog- 
nized at once. Similar changes are : speak, speakest ; 
John, Johns ; wise, tviser, wisest. 

This change in the form of a word, either to denote a 
change of meaning or to adapt it to be used along with 
the different forms of other words, is called inflection. 
The name (Latin inflectere) means bent into shape. 
The change itself is brought about sometimes by a 
change made in a word (one man, two men) ; some- 



NOUNS CLASSIFIED. 67 

times by adding an initial word (man-servant, maid- 
servant) ; sometimes by the substitution of what seem 
to be, or really are, wholly different words (am, was ; I, 
we) ; but mostly by adding a final letter or syllable 
(lion, lion-ess). The additions are often spoken of 
as (1) prefixes, (2) suffixes or endings. English, having 
lost the greater part of its endings, supplies their place 
by distinct words. Thus, — 

Anglo-Saxon wnlf-es = of 'a wolf or a wolf's 
wulf-e = to or for a wolf 
drin c-a /I = to drink 
drinc-e = I drink 
gseW = she-goat 

The simplest form of the inflected word is called the 
base, theme, or stem. 

Sometimes a word may show a change in meaning 
and in use without any change in form ; as in the sen- 
tences, The man killed the bear, The bear killed the man. 
Here, in the first sentence, the noun man is the agent 
of the action expressed by killed ; in the second, it is 
the object of the action expressed by the verb. The 
form of the noun is the same in each sentence ; its use 
is different; hence, the difference in meaning between 
the two sentences. 

Modifications of the parts of speech are changes in 
their form, meaning, and use. 

Nouns have four modifications ; namely, person, gen- 
der, number, and case. 

PERSON. 

Person is that modification of a noun or pronoun 
which distinguishes the speaker, the one spoken to, and 
the person or thing spoken of. 



68 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

There are three persons : the first, the second, and 
the third. 

The first person denotes the one speaking. 

The second person denotes the one spoken to. 

The third person denotes the person or thing spoken 
of. 

A noun is said to be in the first person when it is 
explanatory of a pronoun in the first person ; as, 7, 
John, am going; We, the people of the United States. 

Remark. — As the speaker rarely refers to himself by name, 
nouns are seldom used in the first person. Even such a sentence 
as, I, John, am g'oing, may be explained to mean / (and my 
name is John) am going ; in which case John is third person — 
spoken of. For this reason many grammarians deny the first 
person to nouns altogether. 



GENDER. 

Gender l is that modification of a noun or pronoun 
which distinguishes the names of objects in regard to 
sex. 

There are three genders : the masculine, the feminine, 
and the neuter. 

The masculine gender denotes the names for objects 
of the male sex; as, man, father, king. 

The feminine gender denotes the names for objects 
of the female sex ; as, girl, queen, sister. 

The neuter gender denotes the names for objects 
without sex ; as, silver, oak, bread. 

A noun that is applicable to either male or female, is 
said to be of the common gender ; as, parent, child. In 

1 French genre, Latin genus, kind. 



NOUNS CLASSIFIED. 69 

actual usage, however, the customary masculine name 
includes the feminine, as man (in its broad sense), 
horse, dog; or the usual feminine name may be used 
to include masculine. Thus goose and duck, which were 
originally feminine, do acceptable duty for gander and 
drake, and so become of common gender. When the 
idea of intelligence is not prominent, when the sex is 
unknown or unimportant, the name is generally treated 
as neuter, and we may say : — 

It is a beautiful bird. 

A little child, dear brother Jim, 

That lightly draws its breath, 
And feels its life in every limb, 

What should it know of death? 

If we wish, on occasion, to mark the sex, we prefix 
some adjective word, as male-bird, sAe-bear. Inanimate 
and irrational things, on the other hand, are sometimes 
personified — that is, are spoken of as if they were 
persons, and therefore of the masculine or feminine 

gender : — 

Charity seeketh not her own. 

Love in my bosom like a bee 
Doth suck his sweet. 

Remark. — In personification the masculine gender is usually 
assigned to objects remarkable for strength, power, sublimity, 
greatness, etc. ; as, death, fear, war, anger, and the like. Things 
beautiful, graceful, gentle, etc., are spoken of as feminine. 

Personification is in our language striking, because 
unusual ; whereas in Latin, Greek, French, and Ger- 
man, where nouns are masculine or feminine regardless 
of. the sex of the object signified, the ascription of gen- 
der to things inanimate produces no effect on the mind. 



70 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



A German speaks of his spoon as he, of his fork as she, 
and of his knife or wife as it. 

The gender of nouns, when shown in their form, is 
expressed : — 

1. By a prefix signifying the sex, thus making what 
is called a compound word : — 



7^-goat 

man 

man-kind 

cock-srjaxrow 

raan-servant 

buck-rabbit 



she-goat 

wo-man [= wif e-man] 

woman-hind 

Aera-sparrow 

maid-servSLnt 

doe-rabbit 



2. By the use of distinct words, distinct in appear- 
ance or in fact : 1 — 



MASCULINE. 


FEMININE. 


MASCULINE. 


FEMININE. 


bachelor 


maid 


horse 


mare 


boy 


girl 


husband 


wife 


brother 


sister 


king 


queen 


bull 


cow 


lord 


lady 


cock 


hen 


man 


woman 


colt 


filly 


monk 


nun 


drake 


duck 


nephew 


niece 


earl 


countess 


papa 


mamma 


father 


mother 


ram 


ewe 


gander 


goose 


sir 


madam 


gentleman 


lady 


son 


daughter 


hart 


roe 


uncle 


aunt 



3. By suffixes, ess, ix, en, ina, ine, ster, er : 2 — 

MASCULINE. FEMININE. MASCULINE. FEMININE. 



abbot 


abbess 


benefactor 


benefactress 


actor 


actress 


chanter 


chan tress 


baron 


baroness 


count 


countess 



1 True inflection being a change in the form of a word, the use of adjec- 
tives and distinct words to mark gender is no real inflection, but rather a 
substitute for it. 

2 This is the only mode of real inflection. 



NOUNS CLASSIFIED. 



71 



MASCULINE. 


FEMININE. 


MASCULINE. 


FEMININE. 


czar 


czarina 


lion 


lioness 


dauphin 


dauphiness 


marquis 


marchioness 


deacon 


deaconess 


master 


mistress 


director 


directrix 


mayor 


mayoress 


duke 


duchess 


negro 


negress 


emperor 


empress 


patron 


patroness 


enchanter 


enchantress 


peer 


peeress 


executor 


executrix 


poet 


poetess 


founder 


foundress 


priest 


priestess 


giant 


giantess 


prince 


princess 


god 


goddess 


prophet 


prophetess 


governor 


governess 


protector 


protectress 


heir 


heiress 


shepherd 


shepherdess 


hero 


heroine 


songster 


songstress 


host 


hostess 


sorcerer 


sorceress 


instructor 


instructress 


tiger 


tigress 


Jew 


Jewess 


tutor 


tutoress 


lad 


lass 


viscount 


viscountess 



The tendency is to disregard the distinctive marks of 
gender in the use of many common words ; authoress, 
editress, poetess, for instance, are now nearly obsolete. 

Remark. — Ess, of Norman-French origin, and attached mostly 
to words so derived, is the suffix most extensively employed. To 
make the pronunciation easier, the vowel of the masculine may be 
changed, as mistress or masteress. Ster, as a feminine sign, sur- 
vives only in spinster and foster-mother (= food-ster mother). The 
Saxon and French endings are combined in seam-str-ess and song- 
str-ess. Sometimes it implies merely depreciation or contempt, as 
in youngster, trickster. Vix-en, feminine olfox, is the only remain- 
ing instance of an inflectional ending once common. Er is used 
to form the masculine from the feminine in widow-er. Sultan, 
Sultana, signore, signora, infante, infanta, illustrate a mode of 
forming the feminine in words of foreign origin. 



72 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

NUMBER. 

Number is a modification of nouns and pronouns to 
denote whether one object is meant or more than one. 

The singular number denotes one object ; as, box, 
tree, man. 

The plural number denotes more than one object; 
as, boxes, trees, men. 

RULES FOR THE FORMATION OF THE PLURAL OF 

NOUNS. 

The plural of nouns is formed — 

1. Regularly, by adding s to the singular; as, chair, 
chairs ; top, tops ; sea, seas; mat, mats. 

2. Nouns ending in s, x, z, sh, and ch (soft) add es 
to the singular; as, grass, grasses; box, boxes; topaz, 
topazes ; wish, wishes ; church, churches. 

3. Nouns ending in y preceded by a consonant change 
y to i and add es ; as, city, cities ; lady, ladies ; pony, 
ponies ; body, bodies ; colloquy, colloquies (u after q is a 
consonant). 

Remark. — Nouns ending in y preceded by a vowel form the 
plural regularly by adding s; as, monkey, monkeys ; chimney, chim- 
neys; valley, valleys. 

4. Thirteen nouns ending in f change f to v and add 
es : sheaf, leaf, loaf, beef, staff, thief, calf, half, elf, shelf, 
self, wolf, wharf ; sheaves, leaves, etc. 

Three nouns ending in fe change fe to ve and add s : 

wife, knife, life ; ivives, knives, lives. 

Remark. — Staff, meaning a body of officers, forms its plural 
regularly, staffs. The compounds of staff are regular; as, fag- 
staffs. All nouns in f and fe, except those given above, are regu- 
lar; &s,ffes, strifes, chiefs, gulfs. 



NOUNS CLASSIFIED. 



73 



5. Some nouns ending in o preceded by a consonant 
form the plural by adding es ; as, cargo, cargoes; echo, 
echoes; hero, heroes, etc. This is a mere caprice of 
spelling, and applies to about forty words only. All 
other nouns ending in o after a consonant and all 
nouns ending in o after a vowel are regular, adding s 
only ; as, cantos, solos, folios, bamboos. 

6. The following nouns are still more irregular: 
man, men ; foot, feet ; goose, geese; tooth, teeth; mouse, 
mice; ox, oxen; child, children; louse, lice; brother, 
brethren ; die, dice ; penny, pence. 

7. Some nouns from foreign languages form the plural 
according to the rules of the language from which they 
are derived : — 



SINGULAR. 


PLURAL. 


SINGULAR. 


PLURAL. 


formula 


formulas 


stratum 


strata 


nebula 


nebulae 


criterion 


criteria 


tumulus 


tumuli 


basis 


bases 


radius 


radii 


axis 


axes 


animalculum 


animalcula 


focus 


foci 


datum 


data 


appendix 


appendices 


medium 


media 


vortex 


vortices 


phenomenon 


phenomena 


seraph 


seraphim 


vertebra 


vertebras 


analysis 


analyses 


hypothesis 


hypotheses 


ignis fatuus 


ignes fatui 


genus 


genera 


antithesis 


antitheses 


terminus 


termini 


madame 


mesdames 


automaton 


automata 


bandit 


banditti 


fungus 


fungi 


erratum 


errata 


beau 


beaux 


cherub 


cherubim 


magus 


magi 


monsieur 


messieurs 


crisis 


crises 


synopsis 


synopses 


memorandum 


memoranda 


oasis 


oases 


ellipsis 


ellipses 


parenthesis 


parentheses 



Remark. — Some of these nouns take the English plural also. 
When a foreign word passes into common use, the tendency is to 



74 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

adopt the English plural : formula, formulas ; index, indexes , gen- 
ius, geniuses ; cherubs, beaus, automatons, bandits, memorandums, 
seraphs, radiuses, stratums, vortexes. 

8. Letters and figures, and words used merely as 
words, generally require an apostrophe (') before the 
plural sign s : — 

Dot your i's and cross your fs. 

He employs too many oh's and me's. 

Erase the 5's. 

Make the -f 's larger. 

9. Compound nouns add the plural sign to the prin- 
cipal noun, or the noun described, unless (1) the parts 
are so closely allied that the meaning is incomplete till 
the whole is known ; or (2) unless the suffix has, from 
long use, sunk into an insignificant appendage; as, sons- 
in-law, house-tops, goings-out, bl&ck-birds, merchantmen, 
red-coats; but hand fuls, forget-me-nots, runaways. 

Remark. — Mussulman, German, talisman, Norman, Brahman, 
Ottoman, and Turcoman are not to be treated as compounds of 
man. They form the plural by adding s : Mussulmans, Germans, 
talismans, etc. 

10. Proper nouns, when made plural, follow the 
rules for common nouns ; as, Smiths, Aliens, Henries, 
Charleses, etc. 

11. When a title is used with a proper name so as 
to form a sort of compound, either the title or the name 
may be varied to form the plural ; as, the Miss Clarks, 
or the Misses Clark ; the latter, though formal, is quite 
popular. When a title is used with two or more differ- 
ent names, the title must always be made plural; as, 
the Messrs. Henderson and Baker, the Drs. Brown and 
Grreen, the Lords Byron and Lytton. 



NOUNS CLASSIFIED. 75 

12. Some nouns are alike in both numbers ; as, deer, 
sheep, hose, means, odds, swine, species, bellows, gallotvs, 
vermin, wages, corps, pains (care), series, gross, fish, teal, 
trout, heathen, cannon, summons. 

13. Some nouns are used only in the singular. Such 
are — 

I. Material nouns ; as, gold, sugar, ivine. 

Remark. — Sometimes a material noun becomes a class name 
to show different qualities or portions of the material; it is then 
common, and forms its plural regularly ; as, sugars, wines, etc. 

II. Abstract nouns; as, wisdom, pride, height, virtue, 

vice. 

Remark. — Occasionally these nouns are used in the plural ; 
in which case they become common nouns; as, vices, virtues, etc. 

III. Acoustics, mathematics, optics, physics, ethics, poli- 
tics (and other names of sciences in ics), and news are 
generally construed as singular in idea (though plural 
in form), and take a singular verb. 

14. Some nouns are always plural ; they generally 
name complex objects or masses of individuals that 
have no singular corresponding in meaning; as, abo- 
rigines, alms, annals, antipodes, ashes, archives, eaves, 
assets, bellows, bowels, clothes, credentials, dregs, fire- 
works, hysterics, measles, mumps, riches, scissors, nippers, 
shears, oats, thanks, snuffers, spectacles (glasses), suds, 
ides, tidings, tongs, pincers, trousers, vespers, trappings, 
tweezers, premises, obsequies, victuals, vitals, antics, colors 
(flag), compasses, .contents, corns, forfeits, goods, grounds, 
irons, letters (literature), manners, morals, remains, salts, 
scales, stays, etc. 



16 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



15. Some nouns have two plurals with different 
meanings : — 



Brother, 

Cannon, 

Cloth, 

Die, 

Fish, 

Foot, 

Genius, 



brothers (by blood) , 
. brethren (same society). 

cannons (individual), 
. cannon (collectively ) . 

( cloths (kinds of cloth) , 
I clothes (garments). 

f dies (stamps for coining) , 
( dice (gaming cubes). 

(fishes (individual), 

I fish (collectively). 

f f eet (of the body), 

( foot (soldiers). 

| geniuses (men of genius) , 

1 genii (spirits). 



Head, 

Horse, 

Index, 

Pea, 

Penny, 

Sail, 

Shot, 



| heads (parts of the body), 

i head (of cattle) . 

f horses (animals), 

I horse (soldiers). 

f indexes (to a book), 

I indices (signs in algebra). 

j peas (separate seeds), 

I pease (collectively). 

f pennies (separate coins), 

i pence (collective). 

j sails (of a ship) , 

1 sail (vessels). 

c shots (number of times 

\ fired), 

I shot (number of balls). 



CASE. 

In the following six sentences the noun Robert is used 
in six different ways ; and in each sentence the noun 
bears a different relation to some other word or words 
in the sentence. 

(1) Eobert runs. 

(2) His name is Robert. 

(3) Did you strike Robert? 

(4) Talk to Robert. 

(5) My brother Robert runs. 

(6) Robert's book is torn. 

In the first sentence the noun is the subject of the 
verb ; in the second, it is predicate attribute ; in the 
third, object complement; in the fourth, object of a 
preposition ; in the fifth, explanatory modifier (in appo- 
sition) ; in the sixth, it shows that book is the property 



NOUNS CLASSIFIED. 77 

of Robert. In the first five sentences the form of the 
noun Robert is the same ; in the last sentence only is 
the form of the word changed to express its true rela- 
tion to the rest of the sentence. This difference in the 
form and use of the noun gives us the property called 
case. 

Case is that form or use of a noun or pronoun which 
denotes its office in the sentence, or distinguishes its 
relation to some other word in the sentence. 

There are three cases : the nominative, the possessive, 
and the objective. 

The nominative case of a noun or pronoun denotes 
its office as subject or predicate attribute ; as, his name 
is Robert. 

The possessive ease of a noun or pronoun denotes 
possession, origin, or fitness ; as, Robert's book (pos- 
session), Johnson's Encyclopaedia (origin), mens and 
women's shoes (fitness). 

The objective case of a noun or pronoun denotes its 
office as object complement, or as principal word in a 
prepositional phrase ; as, Did he strike Robert? Talk to 
Robert. 

A noun or pronoun used independently in a sentence 
is said to be in the nominative case ; as, The Pilgrim 
Fathers, where are they? John, come here. 

Remark. — Sometimes a pronoun used independently is in the 
objective case; as, Me miserable! Ah me! Yet, even in cases like 
this, the construction may be explained as depending on something 
understood ; as, Behold me miserable ! Ah ! pity me. 

A noun or pronoun used in apposition (an explanatory 
modifier) is in the same case as the word it explains. 
Examples: My brother John is ill (nominative). Give 



78 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

it to my brother John (objective). They have forsaken 
me, the Fountain of living waters. 

Remark. — The infinitives and participles of be take the same 
case of the noun or pronoun after them as is given to the preced- 
ing noun or pronoun denoting the same person or thing. Exam- 
ples : Being a follower of Prince John, he feared the return of 
Kichard to England. They despised John for being the murderer 
of his nephew. John was despised for being the murderer of his 
nephew. Let the chairman [to] be him that was first appointed. 



FORMATION OF THE POSSESSIVE CASE. 

The possessive case of nouns is formed, in the singu- 
lar, by adding, to the nominative, the apostrophe and 
the letter s ('s) ; 1 as, boy's, lady's, mans, child's, James's, 
Charles's. 

The possessive case of nouns is formed, in the plural, 
by adding the apostrophe only, when the plural noun 
ends in s; as, boys', ladies' ; and by adding the apos- 
trophe and s, when the plural does not end in s; as, 
men's, children's. 

Note I. — The 's should be pronounced as a separate syllable 
(es) when the sound of s will not unite with the last sound of the 
nominative. 

Note II. — To avoid an unpleasant concurrence of hissing 
sounds, the apostrophe alone is sometimes used to mark the pos- 
sessive singular; as, conscience' sake, Jesus' sake, Achilles 9 wrath, 
Euripides' dramas. This is allowable in poetry and w T hen the 
word has more than two syllables ; but in almost all cases it is 
better to follow the regular rule; as, Burns's, Dickens's, princess's. 

1 This s is the remnant of a syllable es (afterward written is), one of 
several modes of forming the possessive case singular, or genitive, in earlier 
English, and is now usually distinguished from the ending of the nomina- 
tive plural by an apostrophe. Apostrophe means turned aioay, and shows 
that something has been omitted. The real omission is the letter e. 



NOUNS CLASSIFIED. 79 

Note III. — Sometimes when the singular and plural are alike 
in the nominative, the apostrophe is placed after the s in the 
plural possessive, to distinguish it from the singular possessive ; 
as, singular, sheep's, plural, sheeps'. 

In compound names and phrase names the possessive 
sign is added to the last word ; as, the son-in-laiv's 
house ; King of England's crown. Compounds in which 
the principal word is put first rarely take the possessive 
plural. 

In a series of words denoting joint possession the 
sign may be added to the last only: Robert and Harry's 
boat, meaning one boat jointly possessed by Robert and 
Harry. But if separate possession is denoted, the sign 
must be used with each: Robert's and Harry's boat, 
meaning that each is represented as owning a separate 
boat. The word boat is understood after Robert's. 

When a possessive noun is followed by an explana- 
tory modifier, the possessive sign is generally added to 
the explanatory noun (appositive) ; as, This is Tenny- 
son, the poet's, house. 

If the explanatory word has several modifiers, or if 
there are more explanatory modifiers than one, the pos- 
sessive sign is added to the principal noun, not to the 
explanatory word; as, The language is Homer's, the 
most renowned poet of antiquity. That motto was 
Franklin's, the philosopher and statesman. 

Remark. — The possessive sign should generally be placed 
immediately before the name of the thing possessed. Probably 
for this reason, in such expressions as somebody else's, the posses- 
sive sign is affixed to the adjective instead of to the noun. The 
expression may be regarded as a substantive phrase similar to the 
expression, Queen of England, Queen of England's. 

Possession is often more elegantly expressed by the 



80 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



preposition of and the objective case ; as, the will of 
man, for man's will; the orations of Demosthenes, for 
Demosthenes' } s orations. 

Remark. — The possessive inflection is limited chiefly to the 
names of persons and to the names of animals and things personi- 
fied. We do not ordinarily say, the tree's height, the knife^s blade ; 
but the height of the tree, the blade of the knife. Nighfs silvery veil 
hung low on Jordan's bosom : here the objects are personified ; so, 
also, in the expressions, Nature's face, how fair ! Fancy's realm, 
Freedom's voice, etc. 



DECLENSION. 1 

The declension of a noun or pronoun is the regular 
arrangement of its cases in the two numbers. 

1 This diagram was used by the old grammarians to illustrate case- 
inflection : — 




A line ON, moving about the point or hinge O, was supposed to fall or 
be bent downward from the perpendicular position at N to the horizontal 
position at Ab. The various positions that the line assumed were taken to 
represent the changes that the noun underwent to denote its office in the 
sentence. 

Each change, being denoted by a fall of the perpendicular, was called 
a case (Latin cado, I fall). 

The nominative was called the straight case. The others — Genitive, 
Dative, Accusative, Vocative, Ablative — were called, in contrast, the 
oblique cases, being denoted by the slanting lines. 

To give a noun these various forms successively was to decline it (de, 
down, and clino, I bend), and the process is therefore called Declension. 



NOUNS CLASSIFIED. 



81 



DECLENSION OF NOUNS. 





LADY. 


MAN. 


FRIEND. 




Singular. 


Plural, 


Singular. Plural. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


Norn. 


lady 


ladies 


man men 


friend 


friends 


Pos. 


lady's 


ladies' 


man's men's 


friend's 


friends' 


Obj. 


lady 


ladies 


man men 


friend 


friends 



USES OF NOUNS. 



There are ten different uses which nouns may have in 
the -expression of thought. 

1. The subject of a verb; as, The waters slept. 

2. The predicate attribute (or attribute comple- 
ment) ; as, % The groves were God's first temples. 

3. The object complement ; as, The oak shall send 
his roots abroad and pierce thy mould. 

Remark. — The direct object denotes the object that directly 
receives the action of the verb ; as, The cannon's roar the death- 
like silence broke. 

The indirect object denotes the object that indirectly receives 
the action; as, Give John the book [*= Give the book to John] ; 
He made the man a coat [= He made a coat for the man]. 

4. Object of a preposition ; as, In thy reign of blast 
and storm. 

5. Objective complement; as, We call Chaucer the 
Father of English Poetry. 

6. Explanatory modifier (appositive) ; as, The 
Franks, a warlike people of Germany, gave their name 
to France. 

7. Possessive modifier ; as, Each fountain's tribute 
hurries thee to that vast grave. 

8. Independently, hy address ; as, Romeo, doff thy 



82 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

name ; by exclamation ; as, The wind ! how it roars ! ; 
by pleonasm; as, The boy, oh! where was he?; by abso- 
lute construction ; as, A bridge having been constructed, 
the Romans crossed the Rhine. 

9. Adverbially, to denote time, place, manner, dis- 
tance, weight, measure, value, or quantity; as, It is 
worth a dollar a pound ; We rode home that way ; He 
can walk five miles an hour ; It weighs a ton ; The room 
is ten feet long. In such constructions the noun may 
be called the object of a preposition understood ; as, of a 
dollar for a pound ; to home by that way ; through five 
miles in an hour ; etc. For this reason, nouns used ad- 
verbially are said to be in the objective case. 

10. Adjectively ; as, a gold watch, a steel pen, country 
customs, city life, garden wall, sea monster, marine 
plants, etc. 

EXERCISES. 

1. In what several ways is the masculine form of nouns distin- 

guished from the feminine ? 

2. Give five examples of each method of distinguishing gender. 

3. Give ten examples of nouns, five of them ending in er or or, 

that may be applied to either sex. 

4. Give the rules for the formation of the plural number and pos- 

sessive case. Also for the pronunciation of the sign s. 

5. Use in sentences the plural form of — 



pony 
shoe 




monkey 
salmon 


+ 
mouthful 


solo 




motto 


foreman 


potato 
man-servant 


6 

pro and con 


hanger-on 
why 


Give the rule for the termination. 





NOUNS CLASSIFIED. 83 

6. Correct the following plurals, and give reasons for correc- 

tion : — 

heros stratums cherubims 

dut ^ s %8 negros 

calfs cupsful vallies 

7. Write the singular of — 

genii data crises 

™ du ^ci g e n e ra 

beaux memoranda phenomena 

8. Write the singular and plural possessives of — 

German step-mother wife 

Moses mother-in-law salesman 

David goose empress 

9. Give the gender, number, and case of every noun in— . 

" What are you good for, my brave little man ? 

Answer that question for me, if you can." 

Over the carpet the dear little feet 
Came with a patter to climb on the seat ; 
Two merry eyes full of frolic and glee, 
Under their lashes looked up unto me ; 
Two little hands, pressing soft on my face, 
Drew me down close in a loving embrace; ' 
Two rosy lips gave the answer so true, 
"Good to love you, mamma, — good to love you." 
10. Show what words in the following sentences are in the objec- 
tive case, as objects of action, expressed by transitive 
verbs in the active voice : 

(1) Govern the tongue. 

(2) Men build houses. 

(3) The farmer bought the horse that kicked the man. 

(4) Sheathe your sword. 

(5) The lightning struck the oak. 

(6) The wolf will devour the sheep. 

(7) Man praises man. 

(8) Titus destroyed Jerusalem. 

(9) Give the poor man bread. 

(10) Will you lend Thomas a knife to cut his pencil? 



84: ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

11. Show what words in the following sentences are in the objec- 

tive case, as objects of relation, expressed by a preposi- 
tion : — 
t (1) Glad at heart from May to May. 

(2) A lion lay among the bushes at the riverside. 

(3) This author almost places before your eyes the island of 

Britain in the reign of Alfred. 

(4) Never dispute about trifles. 

(5) Look towards the sea. 

(6) Place the chair beside the table. 

(7) Throw a stone over the wall. 

12. Point out the vocative cases in the following sentences: — 

(1) You are quite right, Robert. 

(2) Father, will you ask me to return ? 

(3) Friends, Romans, countrymen, lend me your ears. 

(4) This is too hard work, Hardy, to last long. 

(5) England, with all thy faults, I love thee still — my country ! 

(6) Plato, thou reasonest well. 

(7) My son, give me thine heart. 

13. Point out the appositive nouns ; and say to what case they 

stand in apposition : — 

(1) The steamer Chancellor sails every day. 

(2) Coffee comes from Arabia, a country in Asia. 

(3) We have read Cicero the orator's speeches. 

(4) James's son, Charles I., was proclaimed king. 

(5) This landscape is Foster the painter's. 

(6) David slew the insulting giant, proud Goliath, the cham- 

pion of the Philistines. 

(7) The great traveller, Livingstone, explored the Zambesi, 

an African river. 

14. Point out the subject and the predicate attribute in each sen 

fence ; and show that they name the same person oi 
thing : — 

(1) Books are the legacies of genius. 

(2) Daniel Webster was an American statesman. 

(3) London is the capital of England. 

(4) The Thames is a beautiful river. 



NOUNS CLASSIFIED, 85 

(5) Education is a better safeguard of liberty than a stand- 

ing army. 

(6) Caesar was the conqueror of Gaul. 

(7) The emperor of Russia is called the czar. 

15. Point out the objective complements ; tell what they com- 
plete and to what they relate : — 

(1) Elizabeth made Raleigh a knight. 

(2) The people elected him governor. 

(3) Time makes the worst enemies friends. 

(4) They called his name John. 

(5) The Romans made Cicero consul. 

(6) His admirers style Whittier " The Wood-thrush of Essex." 

(7) Many people thought Arthur rightful heir to the throne. 



QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW. 

1. Define a noun. 

2. Into what two classes may nouns be divided ? 

3. Define proper noun ; common noun. 

4. Name three kinds of common nouns. 

5. Define each. 

6. Explain the difference between collective noun and material 

noun. 

7. What is meant by inflection ? 

8. What is meant by modification ? 

9. How many modifications have nouns? 

10. What is gender ? 

11. Define masculine gender; feminine gender; neuter gender. 

12. What is meant by common gender? 

13. What objects are generally personified as masculine? 

14. What as feminine? 

15. In how many ways is the gender of nouns shown? 

16. Which way is true inflection? 

17. Give examples of words alike for feminine and masculine. 

18. What is meant by number? 

19. Define singular number ; plural number. 

20. How is the plural of nouns regularly formed? 

21. How do nouns ending in s, x, z form the plural ? 



86 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

22. Nouns ending in y preceded by a consonant? 

23. Nouns in y preceded by a vowel ? 

24. Nouns in / and fe f 

25. Nouns ending in o after a consonant ? 

26. Nouns ending in o after a vowel? 

27. Give rule for forming the plural of letters, figures, etc. 

28. For forming the plural of compounds. 

29. Of proper nouns ; of titles. 

30. What is case? 

31. When is a noun or pronoun in the nominative case? 

32. In the objective case ? 

33. In the possessive case ? 

34. In what case is an explanatory modifier ? 

35. In what case is a noun used independently? 

36. Give rule for forming the possessive singular. 

37. For forming the possessive plural. 

38. When may the possessive singular be marked by the apos- 

trophe only ? 

39. What caution in regard to this? 

40. To what may the possessive inflection be limited ? 

41. How else may possession be expressed? 

42. What is the difference in meaning between the queen's recep- 

tion and the reception of the queen f between a sister's love 
and the love of a sister ? a mother's care and the care of a 
mother f 

43. What is meant by declension of nouns ? 

44. Decline fox; child; woman; boy; church. 

45. How do you determine the case of a noun or pronoun after 

the infinitives and participles of be ? 

46. Justify these expressions : somebody else's ; the eagle's fight ; 

Fancy's realm. 

47. Illustrate the ten uses of a noun. 

48. In what ways are nouns used independently? 

49. Give examples. 

50. What do nouns used adverbially express ? 



NOUNS CLASSIFIED. 



87 



Classes 



SYNOPSIS FOR REVIEW. 
The Noun. 



Common 



Proper. 



f Collective, 



Abstract, 



j Verbal or Participial ? 
{ Material. 



Modifications. -{ 



Gender 



Number 



Case 



Person 



r Masculine, 

. . ^ Feminine, 

t Neuter. 

( Singular, 

1 Plural. 



r Nominative, 
-l Possessive, 
L Objective. 



r First, 
-l Second, 
I Third. 



Uses. < 



Subject. (Of what ?) 

Object complement. (Of verb or verbal? Direct or 

indirect ?) 
Object of preposition. 

Predicate attribute. (Of verb or verbal?) 
Explanatory. (Of what?) 
Possessive. (Limiting what?) 
Objective complement. (Completing what? Relating 

to wiiat?) 
Independent. 

Adverbial. (Expressing what?) 
Adjective. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



CHAPTER VI. 
Pronouns Classified. 

There may be several persons represented in a sen- 
tence : — 

I said to the man who stood near me, "Did you see the boy 
when he did this ? " 

Here Zand me stand for the name of the person speak- 
ing. You stands for the name of the man, the person 
spoken to. He stands for the name of the boy, the person 
spoken of. Who stands for man, and carries back to it 
the predicate stood near me. This stands for the name 
of the thing spoken of, and refers to it definitely — 
pointedly. 

Again : — 

Who rang the bell ? 
What are you reading ? 
What book are you reading ? 
Do you know this man ? 

Here, as before, who stands for the name of a person 
(unknown), but receives a new character from being 
used to inquire after that person. The first what evi- 
dently inquires after a thing, stands for the name of it, 
and is therefore an interrogative pronoun ; the second 
leans upon booh, and is therefore an interrogative adjec- 
tive. This points out, particularizes, but does not stand 
alone, and therefore has ceased to be a pronoun, and is 
a true adjective. 



PRONOUNS CLASSIFIED. 89 

Certain other words, used to- signify persons or things 
taken generally, have a likeness to pronouns : — 

Either will do. 

Nobody knows you. 

Ten will be chosen. 

The little ones are asleep. 

The others are in the parlor. 

That, expressed or understood, for which a pronoun 
stands is called its antecedent. 

According to their vises, then, pronouns are — 

1. Personal — 7, you, he, she, and it. So called be- 
cause they have distinct forms to denote the person 
speaking or spoken to, or the person or thing spoken 
of. 

2. Interrogative — Wlio, ivhich, what, whether 1 (ar- 
chaic). So called because they are used in asking ques- 
tions. Who is substantive only; ivhich and what are 
substantive or adjective, according to the connection. 

3. Relative — Who, ivhich, what, that, as. So called 
because they usually relate, or carry us back, to some 
noun or pronoun going before, and already given, called 
the antecedent. 

4. Demonstrative — This, these, that, those, same, such, 

former, latter. So called because they speak definitely 

of the thing named. This and these point to the object 

nearer the speaker; that and those, to the object farther 

off: — 

In this 'tis God directs, in that 'tis man. 

5. Indefinite — Some, any, many, few, all, little, enough, 
much, whole, several, such, both, none, each, either, neither, 

1 As an interrogative, whether (which one of the two) is now nearly 
obsolete. 

11 Whether is greater, the gold or the temple," etc. 



90 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

other, another, aught, naught, and the compounds of 
some, any, every, and no, with one, thing, and body ; as, 
somebody, anything, etc. So called because, while they 
stand for names, they do not point out or particularize. 
They are in fact intermediate between real pronouns and 
nouns or adjectives. Both demonstratives and indefi- 
nites may be either substantive or adjective, and are 
often called adjective pronouns or pronominal adjec- 
tives. 

The pronoun-phrases, each other and one another, are 
now used as simple indefinite pronouns. They are called 
reciprocal pronouns, because they express the mutual 
influence of two or more objects : — 

They love each others 
They love, each [of them the] other. 
They whisper to one another^ 
They whisper, one to another. 

The personal pronouns show distinct forms for refer- 
ence to persons, animals, or things, and yet we may apply 
to animals and things personified those forms used in 
relation to persons ; as : — 

" Lord of the winds ! I feel thee nigh." 

" Fair insect ! Thou art a wayward being." 

" Oh ! were 1 but such a big tree as the others ! " 

The compound personal pronouns are formed with 

the aid of self or selves ; as, myself, yourself, himself; 
themselves, etc., and are used — 

1. To mark emphasis ; as, He himself did it. 

2. Chiefly, to form reflexives — that is, to indicate that 
the action of the verb is reflected back upon the actor ; 
as, He hurt himself. 



PRONOUNS CLASSIFIED. 91 

The pronoun it appears to have several distinct modes 
of reference — 

1. To a substantive going before ; as, I went to the 
river ; it was swollen. 

2. To a sentence going before ; as, The day will be 
clear, who doubts it? 

3. To a word, phrase, or clause coming after ; as, — 

7Hs a beautiful child. 

It is pleasant to see the sun. 

I can make it clear that I am guiltless. 

4. There is, further, not only an impersonal, but an 
exceedingly vague and indefinite use of it, not to be 
overlooked : — 

It is they. 

Trip it as ye go. 

Who is it ? 

It rains. 

It will soon come to a quarrel. 

Observe that relative pronouns not only stand for 
nouns, but, unlike other pronouns, join to some fore- 
going word a modifying clause ; that is, they are also 
connectives, and might be called conjunctive pronouns: 
Happy is the man that findeth wisdom, and the man 
who getteth understanding. 

The compound relative pronouns are formed by 
adding ever or soever to who, which, and what, and are 
sometimes called indefinite relatives, as their reference 
is to any one or anything. The compounds with so are 
more rarely used. 

Certain adverbs, derived from phrases containing rela- 
tive pronouns, are often used with the above-described 
value of relatives : as : — 



92 ENGLISH GRAMMA B. 

The spot whereon [ = on which] he stands. 
The day when [ = on which] you were born. 
Do you see the place where he lies ? 

Wherewith, wherein, ivhence, whereby, ivhy, whither, and 
how are similarly used. In such cases, the adverbs Lave 
two values. As connecting their clauses with the ante- 
cedents, they are like relative pronouns ; as modifiers 
of the verbs in their own clauses (stands, born, and lies), 
they are adverbs. These words belong to the class of 
relative adverbs. (See p. 150.) 

The word but, too, in certain negative assertions has 
the force of a relative or conjunctive pronoun : — 

There was no man but did his best = 
There was no man that did not his best. 

As, preceded by same, such, or many, has the force of 
a relative : — 

He denounced such as voted against him = 

He denounced them that [or who] voted against him. 

As many as wish to go, may go = 

They who wish to go, may go. 

She gave me the same as she offered you = 

She gave me that which she offered you. 

In reference to persons, animals, or things, the inter- 
rogative and relative pronouns are restricted in use. 

Who, as an interrogative, is used with reference to 
persons and personified objects only, and, as a relative, 
also with reference to the higher animals, and to things 
inanimate when lending its possessive whose to which or 

that. 

The bird whose nest was disturbed, etc. 
On a rock whose haughty brow, etc. 

"What is not used of persons, and as a relative is com- 



PRONOUNS CLASSIFIED. 93 

monly said to differ from the other relatives in that it 
contains within itself both antecedent and relative : — 

Give me what you have = 
Give me that which you have. 

It is better, however, to say that the antecedent that, or 
that thing, is understood. In the following sentence it 
is expressed : — 

What our contempt doth often hurl from us, 
We wish it ours again. 

Which, as a relative, applies only to things — a com- 
paratively modern restriction ; but as an interrogative, 
to either persons or things ; as, Which of you convinceth 
me of sin ? This word preserves for us the adjective lie 
(like) and the pronoun hwa (who). Old-English forms 
are hwilic, hivile —tvho-like or whatrlike. 

That, originally a neuter singular, now agrees with 
singular and plural antecedents of all genders. 

Not unfrequently this relative is omitted : — 

The book [that"] you sent me. 

The message [that] I was sent with. 

'Tis distance [thaf] lends enchantment to the view. 

The compound relatives, giving an indefinite meaning, 
have their antecedents often left unexpressed : — 

Whosoever is wise = 
Any person who is wise. 

There is a similar indefinite use of the simple who ; 

Who steals my purse, steals trash. 

The pupil must not fall into the error of thinking that 
the foregoing words, or others, belong always to the same 
class. Many of them are freely otherwise used, and then 
must be classified accordingly. 



94 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



EXERCISES. 

Classify the pronouns, supplying such as are omitted, and giving 
your reasons in each case for the classification : — 

1. Who is that? 

2. I don't know who said that. 

3. I don't know the man who said that. 

4. What book is that ? 

5. I said that. I said that I would go. 

6. He is the man that said that. 

7. That that that that man used should have been a which. 

8. The bed which he bought. The ground whereon he lay. 

9. There is something in the wind. 

10. There is somewhat in the wind. 

11. It is a pretty saying of a wicked one. 

12. We speak that we do know and testify that we have seen. 

13. W T hat night is that which saw that I did see? 

14. That gentleness as I was wont to have. 

15. There is nothing good or bad but thinking makes it so. 

16. The place whereto he came was waste and bare. 

17. Whether is greater the gift or the altar? 

18. Either's love was either's life. 

19. He knew not which w T as which. 

20. It is not difficult to die. It grew dark fast. 

21. The good news came at a time when good news was needed. 

22. I will call when you return. 

23. I thought he was a rascal, and he was such. 

24. The ass that frightened the beasts of the forest was laughed 

at when he began to bray. 

25. If you are a man, show yourself such. 

26. He has such great confidence that he will be sure to succeed. 

27. Who gained the prize? 

28. Did you ask who gained the prize ? 

29. This is the house Jack built. 

30. Which have you? Which book have you? 

31. You know which book I have. 

32. Find out which of the girls whispered. 

33. I cannot tell which girl whispered. 



PRONOUNS CLASSIFIED. 95 

MODIFICATIONS OF PRONOUNS. 

Pronouns have the same modifications as nouns ; 
namely, person, gender, number, and case. 



PERSON. 

Strictly, person-forms belong only to personal pro- 
nouns, nouns being considered of the third person, un- 
less used vocatively or in apposition with a pronoun of 
the first or second : — 

I, John, am going. 
Thou, John, must go. 

The personal pronouns of the first person are /with 
its plural we, and myself, ourselves ; of the second person 
are thou, with its plural ye or you, and thyself, yourself, 
and yourselves ; of the third person are he, she, it, with 
their plural they, and himself, herself, itself, and them- 
selves. 

GENDER. 

The modification for gender is made only in personal 
pronouns of the third person, singular number, as shown 
in the forms he, she, and it. The sex of the speaker or 
of the person or persons addressed is always supposed 
to be known ; and the gender of the third person plural 
is determined from the context. 

The gender of the interrogatives who, which, and 
ivhat, and of the relatives who, which, what, and that, is 
determined by their reference. (See pp. 92, 93.) Thus 
we shall find the interrogative who either masculine or 
feminine ; which, masculine, feminine, or neuter ; and 



96 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

what, neuter; and the relatives ivho (whose) and that, 
either masculine, feminine, or neuter; and which and 
what, always neuter. 

NUMBER. 

In their modification for number, the personal pro- 
nouns, both simple and compound, are very irregular, 
having different words for the plurals, except in the 
second person (common form) of the simple personal 
pronoun. 

The interrpgatives and relatives (simple and com- 
pound) are alike in both numbers. The demonstratives 
this and that have the plurals these and those ; former 
and latter may be of either number. 

The only indefinite pronouns that form plurals are 
one and other. Among the other indefinites, each, either, 
and neither are always singular, both always plural, and 
all, any, none, same, and such are either singular or 
plural. 

CASE, 

A pronoun, being a kind of substitute, assumes the 
person, number, and gender of the noun for which it 
stands. 

The case of the pronoun is determined by its relation 
in the sentence — the same, however, as the noun would 
have in its place ; and its inflection proper is almost 
solely for case. 

In this inflection the personal pronoun differs from 
the noun in having, with but few exceptions, different 
words for nominative, possessive, and objective, showing 
also, in the simple personals, double possessives. The 



PRONOUNS CLASSIFIED. 



97 



compound personals have different words for nominative 
and objective in the singular, and no possessive. 

The interrogative and relative who and the compound 
relative whoever or whosoever are the only ones inflected. 
The others have no changes, and are used only as nom- 
inatives and objectives, which and that borrowing the 
possessive whose from who. 

The demonstrative pronouns former and latter form 
the possessives former's and latter s. A few of the in- 
definite pronouns, as one, other, somebody, any one, no- 
body, etc., have possessive forms. 

DECLENSION OF PRONOUNS. 
Personal Pronouns. 



FIRST PERSON. 

Singular. Plural. 
Nom. I, we, 


SECOND PERSON — 

common form. 
Singular. Plural. 
you, you, 


SECOND PERSON— 

old form. 
Singular. Plural. 
thou, ye or you, 


Pos. \ my or 0Ur 0r 
\ mine, ours, 

Obj. me ; us. 


your or your or 
yours, yours, 
you ; you. 


thy or your or 
thine, yours, 
thee ; you. 


THIRD PERSON — MaS. 

Singular. Plural. 

Nom. he, they, 

r, i . ( their or 
Pos. his, 1 . 

t theirs, 

Obj. him ; them. 


third person — Fem. 

Singular. Plural. 
she, they, 
her or their or 
hers, theirs, 
her ; them. 


THIRD PERSON — Neut. 

Singular. Plural. 

it, they, 

their or 
theirs, 

it ; them. 


Compound Personal Pronouns. 


FIRST PERSON. 

Singular. Plural. 

Nom. and Nom. and 

Obj. Obj. 

myself or } 

ourself; { selves. 


SECOND PERSON. 

Singular, Plural. 

Nom. and Nom. and 

Obj. Obj. 

thyself or ) 

yourself; {yourselves. 


THIRD PERSON. 

Singular. Plural. 

Nom. and Nom. and 

Obj. Obj. 

himself ; \ 
herself; [ ihem ~ 
itself; ) selves - 



98 ENGLISH GBAMMAR. 

Remark. — 1. The plural forms of the first person are some- 
times used with a singular meaning ; as by a writer to hide indi- 
viduality, and by one in power to give authority to what is said ; 
as, — 

We do not endorse this proceeding. (Editorial of a paper.) 

We, Victoria, Queen of England, proclaim, etc. 

Remark. — 2. The possessive forms my, our, your, thy, his, her, 
its, and their are used as direct possessive modifiers of nouns. (It 
will be noticed that none of the possessive pronouns are written 
with the possessive sign (').) The forms mine, ours, yours, thine, 
his, hers, and theirs show a peculiar idiomatic use. Although pos- 
sessives, they are used almost exclusively in the nominative and 
objective cases ; as : — 

(a) It is his, hers, or theirs, etc. 

(b) The parcel is yours, for mine has not come. 
i (c) This heart of mine. 

In such constructions we may consider these possessives sub- 
stitutes for nouns and their possessive modifiers ; as : — 
(a) It is his book, her book, or their booh, etc. 
r b) The parcel is your parcel, for my parcel has not come, 
^c) This heart of my possessing. 

In poetry and oratory we often find mine and thine used by 
preference for my and thy before words beginning with a vowel, — - 
a usage once prevalent. 

" Lear. . . . Wilt break my heart ? 

"Kent. I'd rather break mine own." 

Remark. — 3. The forms ye, thou, thy, and thee are confined to 
poetry, elevated prose, and the language of prayer, except as used 
by the Society of Friends. 

Remark. — 4. You is a plural form, whether used in addressing 
one person or more than one, and requires a plural verb. (The 
student cannot too early observe the frequent errors, Was you f, 
Wasn't you?, etc., for the correct forms, Were you?, Weren't you?.) 

Remark. — 5. The pronoun them is very frequently misused in 
place of the demonstrative adjective those ; as, 
I gathered them flowers, etc. 



PRONOUNS CLASSIFIED. 99 

Interrogative Pronouns. 

The interrogative pronouns who, ivhich, and what are 
declined like the relatives who, which, and ivhat. 

Relative Pronouns. 

Sing, and Plu. Sing, and Plu. Sing, and Plu. Sing, and Plu. 
Norn, who, which, that, what, 

Pos. whose, whose, whose, , 

Obj. whom. which. that. what. 

Remark. — Many prefer the phrase of which instead of whose 
wh'cjn the reference is to things inanimate. 

We found a tree whose shade we enjoyed. 

We found a tree, the shade of which w T e enjoyed. 

Compound Relative Pronouns. 

Singular and Plural. Singular and Plural. 
Nom. whoever, whosoever, 

Pos. whosever, whosesoever, 

Obj. whomever. whomsoever. 



USES OF PRONOUNS. 

Pronouns have the same constructions in sentences 
that nouns have, although a few of these are rare. The 
following examples show the different constructions: — 

He will maintain his cause. (Subject and possessive modifier.) 

I saw him. (Object complement.) 

Give me the book. (Indirect object.) 

It was she. (Attribute complement.) 

He himself did it. They each declined to go. (Explanatory modi- 
fiers.) 

I thought you him. (Objective complement, or enlargement.) 

He arrived at the time that I most needed him. (Adverbially, modi- 
fying a verb.) 

What is it worth? (Adverbially, modifying an adjective.) 



100 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

O thou who hearest prayer. (Vocatively.) 

O happy we ! thus blessed. (Independent by exclamation). 

This being the case, we shall go. (Absolutely.) 

This and that, they are all we wish. (Pleonastic.) 



EXERCISES. 

1. Write sentences containing the compound personals — 

itself himself herself myself 

thyself ourselves themselves yourself 

Tell of what person, number, gender, and case each is, and why. 

2. Look in the dictionary for the meaning of self; then tell how 

the parts of itself, yourselves, etc., are related. 

3. Write or find sentences containing the compound relatives, and 

explain the person, number, gender, and case of each. 

4. Distinguish between the emphatic and reflexive pronouns ; also 

show how they are formed : — 

(1) They ruined themselves. (2) I saw myself. (3) You did it 
yourself. (4) I hurt myself. (5) They themselves caused the acci- 
dent. (6) We taught ourselves grammar. (7) The venture paid 
itself. (8) You injure yourselves. (9) The countess herself spoke 
to me. (10) The men set themselves to raise the weight. (11) Cato 
killed himself. (12) We ourselves went to the shore. (13) The 
ship righted herself. 

5. Point out the relative pronoun and its antecedent in each of 

the following expressions ; also tell the number, gender, per- 
son, and case of the relative pronouns : — 

(1) The master who taught me. (2) He fed the cows that sur- 
rounded him. (3) The boy whose book was lost. (4) The staff 
which Charles used. (5) The freeman whom the truth makes free. 
(6) I who teach you. (7) The friend to whom he introduced me. 
(8) He says what he thinks. (9) A religion whose origin is divine. 
(10) The lady and the gentleman whom we met. (11) The horse 
whose leg was broken. (12) The army which was retreating. 
(13) Think on whatever is honest. (14) The house which fell. 



FBONOUNS CLASSIFIED. 101 

6. Show whether that is used as a relative, an adjective, or a con- 

junction in the following expressions, stating the reason in 
each instance : — 
(1) That is the same man that came yesterday. (2) He wishes 
that he were rich. (3) Androcles and the lion that followed him. 

(4) It is reported that that ship you named is lost. (5) The meek- 
est man that ever lived. (6) That lofty tower that crowns the 
distant hill. (7) Speak, that all may hear. (8) That tongue of 
his that bade the Romans. (9) Come, that you may show me that 
picture that you say Turner painted. (10) All that wealth e'er 
gave. 

7. In this exercise pick out the pronouns and adjectives, and 

classify them : — 
(1) Who wrote this book? (2) Whose flocks are these ? (3) He 
told me to whom he had given the book. (4) To whom do we 
owe allegiance? (5) From what source springs all our woe? 

(6) Who that loves flowers would grudge to water them ? (7) In 
which city do you prefer to live — Edinburgh or Glasgow? (8) Can 
he love the whole who loves no part? (9) Which is the better 
likeness ? (10) Whom have we here ? 

8. Some of the following are correct, some are incorrect. Explain 

the errors, and make the necessary corrections : — 
(1) Among the books are octavoes and quartoes. (2) The cow 
jumped into his brother's Henry's field. (3) The captain's of 
the steamer's wife was sick. (4) They are called Methodist's. 

(5) Nebulas are called star dust. (6) I saw the two Mrs. Clark. 

(7) The Moses' are few. (8) The boy's hat was lost. (9) Him 
and me are going home. (10) It is them. (11) Who did you see? 
(12) Tell me whom is going. (13) Those which are going should 
be prompt. (14) This is the man whom we want. (15) Every 
man should try to do their best. (16) I am the man who will do 
it. (17) He is ours old friend. (18) Those what sow will reap. 
(19) The earth is our mother, and we should love it. (20) The 
dog caught a lamb and killed her. (21) This ribbon is her. 
(22) Did you get them forks? (23) I wish I were she. (24) They 
that are faithful he will reward. (25) Who say the people that I 
am ? (26) Be sure to tell whom you are. (27) This was Casper's 
and Fannie's book. (28) I dined at Green's my old friend and 



102 ENGLISH GBAMMAB. 

schoolmate's. (29) Wolsey's the Cardinal's career ended in dis- 
grace. (30) Whom do you suppose it was? (31) Is she taller 
than me V (32) She was angry, and him too. (33) Did you think 
it was us? (34) Us boys had a good time. (35) It is neither 
Casper nor Fannie's book. (36) Can you learn from such as her ? 
(37) For the king, his brother's sake. 



QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW. 

1. Define pronoun. 

2. Name the classes of pronouns and define each. 

3. Give all the simple personal pronouns. 

4. Give the declension of the personal pronouns. 

5. Under what circumstance may we apply these pronouns to 

things ? 

6. Explain the uses of the two forms for the possessive case. 

7. What caution is given for writing the possessives ? 

8. Give a special use of the plural of the first person. 

9. What is meant by the antecedent of a pronoun ? 

10. Give four modes of reference for the pronoun it, with exam- 

ples of each. 

11. Give the compound personals and their declension. 

12. In what two ways are they used? Give examples. 

13. How is the pronoun you used ? What caution in regard to 

its verb ? 

14. Explain the present uses of the second person, old form. 

Give examples. 

15. What caution is given in regard to the use of them ? 

16. Name the interrogative pronouns. 

17. Name the relative pronouns. 

18. What two uses may be assumed by which and what besides 

that of interrogative pronoun ? 

19. Which pronoun of this class always refers to persons? 

W^hich to things? 

20. What are the two uses of relative pronouns? 

21. Explain the references of the relative ivho. 

22. Explain that of the relative what, and tell how it differs 

from the other relatives. 



PRONOUNS CLASSIFIED. 103 

23. What is the difference in the uses of which as interrogative 

and relative ? 

24. Which interrogative is the most general in its application ? 

Which relative ? 

25. Give the compound relatives and their use. 

26. Name some adverbs that are often used with the value of 

relatives. Place them in sentences to show this. 

27. What conjunctions have a similar force? 

28. Under what conditions is as used as a relative ? Illustrate 

each. 

29. In what two ways may the words called indefinite pronouns 

be used ? 

30. Select six of them and show each used as two parts of 

speech. 

31. W r hat constructions in sentences may pronouns have? 

Illustrate. 

32. What person, number, and gender must be given to a 

pronoun ? 

33. How is its case determined ? 



SYNOPSIS FOR REVIEW. 
The Pronoun. 

r Personal, 

Relative, 

Interrogative, 

Demonstrative, 

Indefinite, 
l Reciprocal. 

Modifications. — Same as those of the noun. 
Functions. — Those of the noun. Relatives, and sometimes 
interrogatives, also connect. 



Classes 



104 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



CHAPTER VIL 
Adjectives Classified. 

An adjective is a word used to limit or qualify the 
meaning of a noun. 

Adjectives are of two kinds, descriptive and definitive. 

A descriptive adjective is one that expresses quality ; 
as, bright, wise, good, etc. These embrace the great 
body of adjectives. Proper adjectives — those derived 
from proper names — are chiefly adjectives of quality ; 
as, the Socratic method. 

A definitive adjective is one that points out, num- 
bers, or denotes quantity ; as, that, one, much, etc. 

Definitive adjectives are sub-divided into — 

1. Demonstratives, those which point out objects 
definitely ; as, the, this, that, former, latter, yonder, etc. 

The, derived from the Anglo-Saxon thcet, is commonly 
called the definite article. It has an adverbial use in 
such a sentence as, The more you study, the better you 
will like it. This is a relic of the Anglo-Saxon Thi 
mara . . . thi betra, etc. 

Remark. — The words this and that, along with these and those, 
have the same differences of meaning when adjectives as when 
pronouns. 

2. Distributives, those which refer to objects singly ; 
as, each, either, neither, several, other, every, many a, etc. 

Remark. — Remember that each, either, neither, many a, and 
every refer to objects taken separately. In sentences, therefore, 



ADJECTIVES CLASSIFIED. 105 

containing nouns preceded by these adjectives, great care must be 
taken regarding the concord of the verb with its subject, and of 
the pronoun with its antecedent. 

3. Indefinites, those which point out indefinitely; as, 
a, all, any, another, certain, enough, few, little, many, 
much, no, none, one, other, some, same, etc. An or a is 
called the indefinite article, and is used only with a 
singular noun. An is used before a vowel sound, a 
before a consonant. 

4. Numerals, those which number ; as, one, two, three, 
etc. (cardinal numbers) ; first, second, third, etc. (ordi- 
nal numbers) ; double, two-fold, threefold, etc. (multi- 
plicatives). 

5. Interrogative adjectives, or the interrogative pro- 
nouns, ivhich and ivhat used adjectively : Which boy did 
it? Wliat book are you reading? 

Remark. — Some grammarians call which and what and their 
compounds conjunctive adjectives when they serve to introduce a 
noun clause or to connect it to the rest of the sentence ; as, Do you 
know what presidents of the United States have been assassinated ? 
We have not heard which candidate was elected. 

An adjective that consists of two or more words 
joined together is often called a compound adjective ; as, 
nut-brown, rosy-cheeked, coal-black, never-to-be-forgotten, 
etc. 

Such adjectives as amusing, rising, running, etc., are 
often called participial or verbal adjectives. An amus- 
ing story, the rising sun, the running stream. They 
have the form of a participle, but express quality or 
condition, and convey no idea of time. 

Here again we must remind ourselves that a given 
word has not always the same use; for some of the 
above are mentioned in two classes, and were previously 



«— I. 
v <D 

r <^> 
5* 



106 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

mentioned as pronouns. We have seen elsewhere how 
frequently words that are usually (normally) one part of 
speech are made to do duty (abnormally 1 ) as another : — 

Cod-liver oil ) ^^ 1 

Mountain rill > 

The under current Preposition. 

Hither Gaul Adverb. 

The let-alone policy Verb. 

An out-of-the-way place . . • . . Phrase. 

Take also the following : — 

(1) John's book. 

(2) Paul, the apostle. 

(3) The human form, God's image. 

(4) Love of country. 

(5) Man, aspiring to angelic heights. 

(6) The soldier to be executed was saved. 

(7) The man who loves virtue will be safe. 

(8) The fact that he succeeded is apparent. 

All these italicized parts are adjectives in office or 
effect — abnormal adjectives we may call them. 

Nouns used as in (2) and (3) and (8), to explain or 
identify, are called appositives, or are said to be in 
apposition. 

EXERCISES. 

1. Distinguish between pen, a pen, one pen, and the pen. 

2. Explain the difference between Her soldier cousin, Her cousin, a 

soldier, and Her cousin was a soldier. 

3. Modify the following nouns (1) by appositives, (2) by verbal 

and prepositional phrases, (3) by relative clauses : — 
Washington mountain fact 

ox life rank 

college Peter memory 

care power habit 

gold economy park 

1 Latin ab, from, and normal, regular; departing from regular usage. 



ADJECTIVES CLASSIFIED. "07 

4. Use each of these words and phrases as an adjective : — 

Baltimore whose 

his American 

Henry's flying 

few loaded 

that to come 

what of words 

5. Classify the adjectives in the following : — 

A great battle was raging between the birds and the beasts; it 
had lasted all day, and was not yet decided. Not a bird or beast 
but had taken one side or other in battle — all but the bat. She 
alone, the cowardly creature, would take no part w T ith either side. 
In vain the eagle, the general of the birds, being hard pressed by 
his enemies the beasts, sent her his commands by the swallow to 
join the army of the birds. "How can you give me the name of 
bird?" she replied; " what bird has teeth as I have?" Soon after- 
wards the lion, the king of beasts, finding the battle going against 
him, sent to say that he would forgive her her past cowardice if 
she came at once to join his army. " What right has he to ask of 
me such a favor?" replied the bat. "How can he take me for a< 
beast ? Even a mole can see that I have wings. Who ever saw~ a 
beast with wings ? " 

Saying these words, she flew to the birds, who seemed on the 
point of gaining a complete victory, and eagerly offered the eagle 
her services. But the eagle answered, "Just now you told us that you 
were a beast. Go to your friends, the beasts. They need your help 
more than w r e." The bat retired in confusion ; but an hour after- 
wards, fortune inclining towards the beasts, she humbly approached 
the lion, offering him her help. "You would not do us a kindness 
when we were in trouble," roared the lion, " and now do you talk 
about giving us your help ? Away with you ! The battle once 
over, I will make short work with you." 

Rejected by both parties — the natural result of her cowardice — 
the bat was forced to lead a solitary life. So she skulks in dark 
places and prefers the night to the day — a warning to all men that 
they must not " trim." 



108 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



MODIFICATION OF ADJECTIVES. 

Adjectives now have no inflection to mark gender, 
number, and case ; that is, of whatever gender, number, 
or case the noun modified may be, no change is made in 
the form of the adjective : — 

A good boy. 

A good girl. 

A good stick. 

Good horses. 

The good die young. 

In such examples as the last, however, in which the 
adjective is used substantively, it is commonly under- 
stood to signify more than one. 



COMPARISON. 

Adjectives have one modification, comparison. 

Comparison is a variation of the adjective to express 
quality in different degrees ; as, sweet, sweeter, sweetest. 

There are three degrees of quality expressed in gram- 
mar, and hence adjectives are said to have three degrees 
of comparison: the positive, the comparative, and the 
superlative. 

The positive degree shows the quality of an object 
without special reference to any other object. It is the 
simplest form of the adjective ; as, sweet, hard, soft, etc. 

The comparative degree shows that, of two things 
or sets of things compared, one possesses the quality in 
a higher or lower degree than the other. It is regularly 
formed by adding er to the positive ; as, sweeter, harder, 
softer, etc. 

The superlative degree is used when more than two 



ADJECTIVES CLASSIFIED. 109 

things are compared, and shows the greatest or least 
degree of the quality. It is regularly formed by adding 
est to the positive ; as, sweetest, hardest, softest, 

RULES FOE SPELLING. 

(1) When the positive ends in a silent e, r and st only are 
added ; as, nice, nice-r, nicest. 

(2) When the positive ends in y (not preceded by a vowel), y 
is changed into i; as, holy, holi-er, holi-est. 

(3) A final consonant preceded by a short vowel is usually 
doubled ; as, hot, hot-t-er, hot-t-est. 

Words of more than two syllables, and most words 
of two, are compared by means of the adverbs more 
and most : He is the more learned of the two ; He is the 
most learned of all. This makes the pronunciation 
easier and the sound more agreeable. Any adjective 
may be compared in this manner, either to emphasize 
the quality or to please the ear; as, It is most true. 

To express degrees of diminution, the adverbs less 
and least may be used: His was the less meritorious 
painting of the two ; His was the least meritorious 
painting of all. Such phrases, however, can hardly be 
called a modification of the adjective. The words are 
to be taken separately, and the degree of quality is in 
reality expressed by the adverb. The inflection of the 
adverb produces a change in the meaning. 

Degrees of quality are also expressed by the use of 
other adverbs : rather bad, too bad, very bad. 

Some words are irregularly compared : — 



Positive. 


Comparative. 


Superlative. 


(1) late 


latter, later 


last, latest 


nigh 


nigher (near) 


nighest, next 


old 


elder, older 


eldest, oldest 



110 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Positive. 
(2) good 
bad •> 

ill J 

little 
much ) 
many } 

Some words, used now as adjectives, now as adverbs, 
have comparative and superlative forms ending in more 
and most, affixed to the positive or comparative : — 



Comparative. 
better 


Superlative. 
best 


worse 


worst 


less (lesser) 


least 


more 


most 



fore 


former 


foremost 


[further] 


furthermore 


furthermost \ 


in 


inner 


inmost, innermost 


out 


outer 


outmost, outermost 


[ut] 


utter 


utmost, uttermost 


up 


upper 


uppermost 


hind 


hinder 


hindmost, hindermost 



Some adjectives have no comparative ; as, front, front- 
most; end, endmost; top, topmost; under, undermost; 
western, westernmost, etc. 

In a few words of irregular form, the origin and force 
of the comparative have been forgotten, and the words 
have been inflected a second time. Hence the double 
comparatives lesser (less'), more (mo), nearer. With 
these may be compared Shakespeare's rhetorical inten- 
sives, " more fairer," " most unkindest cut of all." 

Adjectives expressing qualities that do not admit of 
degrees are not logically comparable: 1 — 

certain fluid empty 

circular perfect universal 

dead continual void 

extreme supreme yearly 

eternal round French 

1 Yet, in ordinary talk and in literature, it is not uncommon to compare 
such adjectives as certain, round, and perfect, as expressing approximate 
meanings. 



ADJECTIVES CLASSIFIED. Ill 

The demonstratives this and that take the plural 
form these and those before plural nouns. Other, when 
a pronoun, is inflected for case and number : for the 
sake of others; — another is inflected for case: for an- 
other's sake. 

Caution. — The pronoun them should never be used for the 
adjectives these and those. 

USES OF ADJECTIVES. 

The adjective performs but one general office in the 
sentence ; namely, to limit a noun or pronoun by point- 
ing crut or expressing quality. It may, however, stand in 
several different relations to the word it modifies; as: — 

1. Attributive. — An adjective closely connected 
with its noun is called attributive ; as, a beautiful 
flower; the tired child; an insane man. 

2. Predicate. — An adjective which modifies the sub- 
ject of a verb, and completes the assertion made by the 
verb, is called a predicate adjective ; as, The flower is 
beautiful; The child seemed tired; The man became 
insane. 

3. Objective Complement. — An adjective may com- 
plete the meaning of a transitive verb and modify the 
object of the verb; as, Intemperance made the man 
insane ; We found the child tired and sleepy. 

The adjective usually precedes the noun which it 
modifies ; as, the calm and silent night. It may, how- 
ever, follow it (1) when several adjectives modify the 
same noun; as, a man brave and generous; (2) when 
the adjective is modified by a phrase; as, a man too brave 
to do a cowardly act ; (3) in poetry the adjective is fre- 
quently placed after the noun ; as, the letter of those 
words divine. 



112 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

EXERCISES. 

1. Write the comparison of — 

bright * hard plentiful 

wise witty proud 

active sensible angry 

2. Give the descending comparisons of little and selfish. 

3. What parts of speech are less, least, more, most, in — 

Had he been less venturesome he would have lived. 

He was the least diligent in the room. 

He was the more valiant. 

To advance was the most dangerous course. 

Write sentences in which each of these words shall be used as an 
adjective and a noun. 

4. Point out the proper, compound, and verbal adjectives in the 

following : — 

(1) Birthday present. (2) Seven-hilled city. (3) Cornish 
coast. (4) Running stream. (5) April showers. (6) Steel 
pens. (7) Growing corn. (8) Blood-red field. (9) British navy. 
(10) Hazel-eyed Sarah. (11) He wears a gold pin in his satin 
scarf. (12) The rosy-cheeked boy swings. (13) Constantine was 
the first Christian emperor. (14) Cloud-capped towers. (15) The 
village murmur rose. (16) He stood on the Alpine brow. (17) Half- 
forgotten recollections crowd upon the mind. (18) The flashing 
mass foams. 

5. Where it is possible, express the comparison in a different way; 

in other instances, show what degree of quality is ex- 
pressed by the adjective : — 

(1) My uncle is not so wealthy as my father. (2) We heard 
a highly instructive lecture. (3) The French are more lively 
than the English. (4) The fruit is sourish. (5) He is not so 
industrious as he should be. (6) That was a very kind act. 
(7) He was as good as his word. (8) He showed greater friend- 
ship to me than to you. (9) The Indians are extremely indolent. 
(10) The water is brackish. (11) Too warm a coat. (12) Their 
garden is larger than ours. 



ADJECTIVES CLASSIFIED. 113 

6. Express in three different ways the fact that Henry is taller 

than Harry. 

7. Explain the errors (where there are such) in the following, and 

make the corrections : — 
(1) I don't like those kind of apples. (2) We have walked this 
two hours. (3) Which of the two is the prettier ? (4) Put those 
books on the table. (5) He is six foot tall. (6) A more surer 
punishment. (7) Which of the two is the best? (8) Make the 
line more vertical. (9) Them books belong to me. (10) I meas- 
ured it with a two-feet rule. (11) The room is ten feet square. 
(12) Those sort of people never prosper. (13) Remove this ashes. 
(14) Of the two, this is the more preferable. (15) He has more 
enthusiasm than sense. (16) It was the less valuable of the six. 

QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW. 

1. What is an adjective? 

2. How many kinds of adjectives are there? Define each. 

3. What are the classes of definitive adjectives ? 

4. What is a demonstrative adjective? A distributive adjective? 

An indefinite adjective? A numeral adjective? An inter- 
rogative adjective? 

5. What is the definite article ? The indefinite article ? 

6. What is meant by conjunctive adjectives? By compound 

adjectives? By verbal adjectives? 

7. What modification have adjectives ? 

8. How many degrees are there ? 

9. What is the positive degree? The comparative degree ? The 

superlative degree ? 

1 0. How is the comparative degree regularly formed ? 

11. How is the superlative degree regularly formed? 

12. Give rules for spelling the comparative and superlative of 

holy ; of hot ; of ivise. 

13. Give examples of adjectives irregularly compared. 

14. Give examples of adjectives that want the comparative. 

15. Give examples of adjectives that do not admit of comparison. 

16. What adjectives are compared by more and most ? 

17. How are degrees of diminution expressed ? 

18. What are proper adjectives ? To what class do they belong ? 

19. Explain the uses of adjectives. 



114 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



SYNOPSIS FOR REVIEW. 
The Adjective. 



Classes 



Descriptive. 



Definitive 



Modification. — Comparison 



Demonstrative, 
Distributive, 
Indefinite, 
Numeral, 

Interrogative. 

r Positive degree, 
1 Comparative degree, 
I Superlative degree. 



r Attributive adjective, 

Uses \ Predicate adjective, 

I Objective complement. 



VERBS CLASSIFIED. 115 



CHAPTER VIIL 
Verbs Classified. 

We have found that every sentence must have a verb 
in it — that the verb, alone or with other words, forms 
the predicate. 

Verbs that of themselves have full meaning as predi- 
cates, are said to be complete ; as : — 

Fishes swim. They went. 

Water freezes. Truth exists. 

He sleeps. Fire burns. 

When, in order to make sense, a verb requires the 
addition of a word relating either (1) to itself, or 
(2) to the subject, it is said to be incomplete ; as : — 

(1) I shut the door. 
He struck John. 

(2) He looks sick. 
I am the man. 

The completing word or group of words is called the 
complement. 

Verbs like those of (1) are incomplete in the sense 
of calling for the addition of a word to express some 
person or thing on which the action is exerted. A much 
smaller class, like those of (2), are incomplete in the 
sense of calling for some addition relating to the sub- 
ject, and further describing or qualifying it. 

The same word, be it remembered, may be a complete 
verb, an incomplete verb, or no verb at all ; as : — 



116 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

1. The soldiers march. 

2. March your corps to Paris. 

3. The march was fatiguing. 

A certain difference of meaning, again, separates 
verbs into three principal classes : transitive, intransitive, 
and copulative. 

1. The transitive 1 verb expresses an action that ter- 
minates directly on some object : — 

Heat melts ice. 
Cold freezes water. 

The object of a verb is a noun or pronoun denoting — 

(1.) The direct or passive object; as, John struck 
James. 

(2.) The object of effect; as, He dug a well; He 
built a fence. 

(3.) The cognate object (so called because the object 
has a meaning like that of the verb) ; as, He dreamed 
a dream ; He ran a race. 

2. The intransitive verb expresses (1) a state or 
condition ; (2) an action not terminating on an object 
(or doing so only by help of a preposition) : — 

He sleeps well [state or condition]. 
He arose [action confined to subject]. 

He ran against the man [action expended on an object by help 
of preposition]. 

This, however, is not always a distinction in the 
nature of things ; for the same verb, expressing the 
same action, may be either transitive or intransitive : — 

(1) The child sees the house. 

(2) The new-born child sees, the kitten is blind. 

(3) He struck the man. 

1 Latin trans, over, and ire, to go, the idea being that the action passes 
over from the subject and affects some object. 



VERBS CLASSIFIED. 117 

(4) He struck at the man. 

(5) The boy ran. 

(6) The boy ran a race. 

(7) The boy ran them out of the yard. 

(8) He dreams. 

(9) He dreams a dream. 

(10) He dreams of being at home. 

(11) He dreams that he is at home. 

3. The copulative verb is one that requires a com- 
plement to describe what the subject names : — 

He looks sick. 

He continues grateful. 

Rome was a city. 

The principal copulative verbs are become, seem, is, 
appear, look, feel, groiv, continue, smell, sit, stand, lie, 
and words of similar import- 

A verb that, like am, merely couples or links the 
complement to the subject, is sometimes called copula. 1 
Thus : — 

God is good. He will be ill. 

You are happy. He may have been ill. 

They had been friends. He must not be ill. 

When the verb be means to exist, it is a complete, 
intransitive verb ; as in — 

There is a God. 
lam [= exist]. 
Time was when this spot was a wilderness. 

Intransitive verbs may sometimes be used as copula- 
tives ; as, He lived an apostle and died a martyr. 

Transitive and copulative verbs are incomplete; in- 
transitive verbs are complete. 

Verbs used with the subject it (when it is indefinite) 

1 From the Latin, and meaning a coupler or link. 



118 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

are sometimes — though the distinction is of very little 
worth — said to be impersonal ; as, It thunders ; It rains; 
It snows. In the earliest period, to express some un- 
known cause of inexplicable results, they wrote, It 
repents, shames, me. A relic of the old usage is me- 
thinks ; that is, It seems or appears to me. 

Verbals, or words denoting state or action, but with- 
out asserting it, may of course be used and be modified 
in the same way as verbs, and hence will be similarly 
classified : — 

He was fond of reading. 

He was fond of reading newspapers. 

To read profitably, read carefully. 



EXERCISES. 

1. Construct sentences in which each of these words shall receive 
two or more classifications — transitive, intransitive, com- 
plete, incomplete, copulative — as verbs : — 

teach smell 

broke have been 



ring speak 

stand sing 

2. Pick out the verbs, and state (after giving your reasons) 
whether they are transitive, intransitive, or copulatives. 

(1) He rested easily. 

(2) He rested himself. 

(3) Elephants eat. 

(4) Elephants eat greedily. 

(5) Elephants eat candy. 

(6) He sleeps the sleep of death. 

(7) The baby walked. 

(8) The boy walked rapidly. 

(9) The boy walked himself weary. 
(10) He leaves town to-morrow. 



VERBS CLASSIFIED. 119 

(11) He is leaving for India. 

(12) But see thou change no more. 

(13) Part we in friendship from your land. 

(14) Should I not write, you must know all is well. 

(15) He had been blauiable. 

(16) Law wills that it be known. 

(17) He looked a look that threatened her insult. 

(18) May there be no ill-will between us. 

(19) Motionless as a cloud the old man stood. 

(20) What matter where, if I be still the same, 
And what I should be, all but less than He 
Whom thunder hath made greater ? 

3. Pick out the verbs and verbals, and classify them into transi- 
tive and intransitive : — 
An old man had several sons, who were very quarrelsome. Few 
days passed without a violent quarrel, and often they came to 
blows. One day when the young men were bringing some fagots 
home for firewood, the father called them round him. Speaking 
to the eldest, who was first in order, be bade him try to break a 
fagot; he tried, but could not break it. Then turning to the 
next son, " See," said the old man, "whether you can break this 
fagot." But neither the second, nor the third, nor the seventh 
(for there were seven sons) could manage to break the fagot. 
Then the old man, undoing the string that fastened the fagot, 
broke each stick separately. " If you keep together," said he, " no 
man will be able to hurt you ; but if you continue your foolish 
quarrels, your enemies will destroy you, just as I break these 
sticks." 

VERBALS. 

Verbals are words derived from verbs, and denoting 
state or action, but without asserting it. He sings 
asserts action and declares some one to be the doer of 
the action. Singing or to sing merely expresses or 
names the action itself. 



120 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Because verbals are so much used in making up the 
forms of the verb, we shall speak first of them. They 
are of two kinds : participles and infinitives. 

There are two participles : — 

1. The present participle, which ends in ing and de- 
notes present or continued action or state ; as, singing, 
moaning, swaying ; the singing birds ; the moaning tree- 
boughs, the swaying blind. 

2. The past participle, which has a variety of end- 
ings — ed, en, t, or none at all — and expresses com- 
pleted action ; as, painted, given, burnt, hurt ; the 
painted screen ; the screen painted by hand ; the burnt 
child dreads the fire ; flowers hurt by the frost. 

There are two infinitives : — 

1. The present or root infinitive, which is the sim- 
plest form of the verb. Its usual sign is the preposition 
to ; as, to sing, to give, to paint, etc. 

2. The participial infinitive, which, like the present 
participle, ends in ing 1 , but differs from it in being used 
always as a noun ; as, Griving is better than receiving. 

To distinguish the participial infinitive from the 
present participle, remember that the former is used as 
a noun and the latter as an adjective. 

Examples : — 

Participial ( B ? ™P n 9> birds deli ^ ht us * 
t n -4-- < Singing is pleasant pastime. 

( I heard the singing of the birds. 

Present ( The singing birds delight us. 
Participles. 1 The birds, singing in the trees, delight us. 

The present infinitive may be used as : — 
1. A noun: To give is better than to receive ; To see 
is to believe. 



VERBS CLASSIFIED. 121 

2. An adjective: Time to come is called future; A 
desire to do good is praiseworthy. 

3. An adverb : The man is too weak to stand ; Man 
was created to search for truth. 



PRINCIPAL PARTS OF A VERB. 

The principal parts of a verb, or those from which 
the other parts are derived, are the present indicative 
(root), past indicative (known also as preterit), and 
the past participle ; as, write, wrote, written ; serve, 
served, served. 

Except in the verb he, the present indicative and root 
infinitive are identical : To love, I love ; To he, I am. 



VERBS CLASSIFIED WITH RESPECT TO FORM. 

Verbs are classified with respect to form into regular 
and irregular} 

A regular verb (sometimes called weak} is one that 
forms its past tense and past participle by adding ed to 
the present ; as, planted, iormed, seemed. 

An irregular verb (sometimes called strong} is one 
that does not form its past tense and past participle by 
adding ed to the present ; as, shook, spoke, seen. 

Let pupils be required to make short sentences illus- 
trating the proper use of the principal parts of verbs in 
the following lists : — 

1 The principle of this classification is, that the power of varying a word 
by internal change implies a certain innate vitality not possessed by 
roots capable of being varied only by the addition of external elements. 
The strong conjugation is the older. The verbs belonging to it are all of 
Saxon origin. Derivative words, and words adopted from other tongues, 
belong to the more modern, or Weak. 



122 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



(1) List of Irregular (or Strong) Verbs. 



Present Tense. 


Past Tense. 


Past Participle. 


abide 


abode 


abode 


am 


was 


been 


arise 


arose 


arisen x 


awake 


aw T oke, awaked 2 


awoke, awaked. 


bear (bring forth) 


bore [bare] 3 


born 


bear (carry) 


bore [bare] 


borne 


beat 


beat 


beaten 


become 


became 


become 


befall 


befell 


befallen 


beget 


begot [begat] 


begot [begotten] 


begin 


began 


begun 


behold 


beheld 


beholden, beheld 


bid 


bade, bid 


bidden, bid 


bind 


bound 


bound 


bite 


bit 


bitten, bit 


blow 


blew 


blown 


break 


broke [brake] 


broken [broke] 


burst 


burst 


burst 


chide 


chid [chode] 


chidden, chid 


choose 


chose 


chosen 


cleave (split) 


cleft, clove 


cleft, cloven 


cling 


clung 


clung 


come 


came 


come 


crow 


crew, crowed 


crowed 


dare 


durst, dared 


dared 


dig 


dug, digged 


dug, digged 


do 


did 


done 


draw 


drew 


drawn 


drink 


drank 


drunk 


drive 


drove 


driven 


eat 


ate 


eaten 



1 The past or passive participle once ended in en for all strong verbs, 
but this suffix has in many cases fallen away; as, drunk [= drunk-en]. 
When strong verbs form their past participles in ed (d or t) they become 
weak : strong, He has moivn ; weak, He has moioed. 

2 Regular form in italics. 3 Old forms in brackets. 



VERBS CLASSIFIED. 



123 



Present Tense. 


Past Tense. 


Past Participle. 


fall 


fell 


fallen 


fight 


fought 


fought 


find 


found 


found 


fling 


flung 


flung 


fly 


flew 


flown 


forbear 


forbore 


forborne 


forget 


forgot 


forgotten, forgot 


forsake 


forsook 


forsaken 


freeze 


froze 


frozen 


get 


got 


got [gotten] 


give 


gave 


given 


go 


went 


gone 


grave 


graved 


graven, graved 


grind 


ground 


ground 


grow 


grew 


grown 


hang 


hung, hanged 


hung, hanged 


heave 


hove, heaved 


hove, heaved 


hew 


hewed 


hewn, hewed 


hold 


held 


held [holden] 


know 


knew 


known 


lade 


laded 


laden, laded 


lie (recline) 


lay 


lain 


mow 


mowed 


mown, mowed 


ride 


rode [rid] 


ridden [rid] 


ring 


rang, rung 


rung 


rise 


rose 


risen 


rive 


rived 


riven, rived 


run 


ran 


run 


see 


saw 


seen 


seethe 


seethed [sod] 


sodden, seethed 


shake 


shook 


shaken 


shave 


shaved 


shaven, shaved 


shear 


sheared 


shorn, sheared 


shine 


shone, shined 


shone, shined 


shoot 


shot 


shot 


show- 


showed 


shown, showed 


shrink 


shrank, shrunk 


shrunk, shrunken 


sing 


sung, sang 


sung 



124 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Present Tense, 


Past I 


Tense. 


Past Participle. 


sink 


sunk, sank 


sunk 


sit 


sat 




sat 


slay 


slew 




slain 


slide 


slid 




slidden, slid 


sling 


slung 




slung 


slink 


slunk 




slunk 


smite 


smote 




smitten 


sow 


sowed 




sown, sowed 


speak 


spoke [spake] 


spoken 


spin 


spun 




spun 


spring 


sprang, 


sprung 


sprung 


stand 


stood 




stood 


steal 


stole 




stolen 


stick 


stuck 




stuck 


sting 


stung 




stung 


stink 


stank 




stunk 


strew 


strewed 




strewn, strewed 


stride 


strode, 


strid 


stridden, strid 


strike 


struck 




struck, stricken 


string 


strung 




strung 


strive 


strove 




striven 


strow 


strowed 




strown, strowed 


swear 


swore [ 


sware] 


sworn 


swell 


swelled 




swollen, swelled 


swim 


swam, i 


>wum 


swum 


swing 


swung 




swung 


take 


took 




taken 


tear 


tore [tare] 


torn 


thrive 


throve, 


thrived 


thriven, thrived 


throw 


threw 




thrown 


tread 


trod 




trodden, trod 


wake 


woke, waked 


woke, waked 


wear 


wore 




worn 


weave 


wove 




woven 


win 


won 




won 


wind 


wound 




wound 


wring- 


wrung 




wrung 


write 


wrote 




written 



VERBS CLASSIFIED. 



125 



(2) List of Weak Verbs, usually called Ireegulak. 

(«) 



Present Tense, 


Past Tense. 


Past Participle. 


bereave 


bereft, bereaved 


bereft, bereaved 


beseech 


besought 


besought 


bring 


brought 


brought 


burn 


burnt, burned 


burnt, burned 


buy 


bought 


bought 


catch 


caught 


caught 


creep 


crept 


crept 


deal 


dealt 


dealt 


dream 


dreamt, dreamed 


dreamt, dreamed 


dwell 


dwelt 


dwelt 


feel 


felt 


felt 


flee 


fled 


fled 


have 


had 


had 


hide 


hid 


hid, hidden 


keep 


kept 


kept 


kneel 


knelt, kneeled 


knelt, kneeled 


lay 


laid 


laid 


lean 


leant, leaned 


leant, leaned 


leap 


leapt, leaped 


leapt, leaped 


learn 


learnt, learned 


learnt, learned 


leave 


left 


left 


lend 


lent 


lent 


lose 


lost 


lost 


make 


made 


made 


mean 


meant 


meant 


pay 


paid 


paid 


rap 


rapt, rapped 


rapt, rapped 


say 


said 


said 


seek 


sought 


sought 


sell 


sold 


sold 


shoe 


shod 


shod 


sleep 


slept 


slept 


spell 


spelt, spelled 


spelt, spelled 


stay 


staid, stayed 


staid, stayed 


sweep 


swept 


swept 



126 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Present 


Tense. 


Past Tense. 


Past Participle. 


teach 




taught 


taught 


tell 




told 


told 


think 




thought 


thought 


weep 




wept 


wept 


work 




wrought, worked 


wrought, worked 



List of Weak Verbs, usually called Irregular. 



Present Tense. 


Past Tense. 


Past Participle 


bend 


bent 


bent 


bet 


bet, betted 


bet, betted 


bleed 


bled 


bled 


breed 


bred 


bred 


build 


built, builded 


built, builded 


cast 


cast 


cast 


clothe 


clad, clothed 


clad, clothed 


cost 


cost 


cost 


cut 


cut 


cut 


feed 


fed 


fed 


gild 


gilt, gilded 


gilt, gilded 


gird 


girt, girded 


girt, girded 


hit 


hit 


hit 


hurt 


hurt 


hurt 


knit 


knit 


knit 


lead 


led 


led 


let 


let 


let 


light 


lit, lighted 


lit, lighted 


meet 


met 


met 


put 


put 


put 


quit 


quit, quitted 


quit, quitted 


read 


read 


read 


rend 


rent 


rent 


rid 


rid 


rid 


send 


sent 


sent 


set 


set 


set 


shed 


shed 


shed 


shred 


shred 


shred 


shut 


shut 


shut 



VEBBS CLASSIFIED. 



127 



Present Tense. 


Past Tense. 


Past Participle. 


slit 


slit 


slit 


speed 


sped 


sped 


spend 


spent 


spent 


spit 


spit [spat] 


spit 


split 


split 


split 


spread 


spread 


spread 


sweat 


sweat 


sweat 


thrust 


thrust 


thrust 


wet 


wet, wetted 


wet, wetted 


whet 


whet, whetted 


whet, whetted 



MODIFICATIONS OF VERBS. 

Verbs have five modifications : mode, tense, person, 
number, and voice, 

MODE. 

A verb may express the action as a fact ; John walks : 
as possible, doubtful, or obligatory; John can walk, 
might walk, must walk : or as commanded ; John, walk, 
be ivalking. Hence — 

Mode is that modification of a verb which expresses 
the manner of asserting the action, being, or state. 

There are three modes : the indicative, the potential, 
and the imperative. 

The indicative mode expresses the action, being, or 
state as a fact; as, The boy runs; The boy is sick. 

The potential mode expresses the power, liberty, 
possibility, or necessity of the action, being, or state : 
as, The boy can run ; The boy must run ; The boy may 
be sick. 

The imperative mode expresses the action, being, or 
state as a command or an entreaty ; as, Run [thou or 
you] ; Be comforted. 



128 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Remark. — There is considerable difference of opinion concern- 
ing the treatment of mode. 

The older grammarians, who were strongly influenced by the 
Latin, gave five modes : infinitive, indicative, subjunctive, potential, 
and imperative. For an extended presentation of this view see 
Brown's Grammar of English Grammars, pp. 3o6-340. 

The modern grammarians, who are less affected by the formalism 
of the Latin, have dropped the infinitive as a separate mode, and 
are in dispute over the subjunctive and potential. Whitney, in 
Essentials of English Grammar, p. 103, gives three modes, — indica- 
tive, subjunctive, and imperative, — but says, in a note on p. 104, 
" the subjunctive ! asa separate mode is almost wholly lost and out 
of mind in our language." The potential mode he classes as con- 
ditional, potential, or obligative tenses of the indicative, as is seen 
in his treatment of give on p. 125. 

It would seem, however, that these forms, may, can, etc., have 
now become so intimately associated with the root of the verb that 
they can properly be classed as modifications, and grouped into a 
separate mode, the potential, and they will be so treated in this 
work. 

The subjunctive, as a separate mode, is so nearly lost in our 
language that we have excluded it. from the classification. It is 
a source of infinite confusion to maintain it ; since (1) there is no 
peculiar form for it ; (2) there is no peculiar meaning for it, it 
being indicative or potential in meaning, according as it has the 
indicative or potential form. The subjunctive present may be 
regarded as a shortened future tense. If I go, if I he, mean in 
fact if 1 shall go, if 1 shall he. The past tense, except in the verb to 
he, is like the indicative : if I went, if he went. And there is no 
sufficient reason why if I were, if he were may not be classed as 
potential : — 

If 'twere [it should be] done when 'tis done, then 'twere [it 
would be] well 

It were [should be] done quickly. 

For the convenience of those who desire to retain the subjunctive 
mode, the commonly accepted forms will be appended to the con- 
jugations. 

1 The machinery is too great for the occasion ; we find that conditionality 



VERBS CLASSIFIED. 129 

TENSE. 

The time of an action may be — 

(1) Present — I walk [do or am walking]. 

(2) Past — I walk-ec/ [did walk or was walking] . 

(3) Future — I shall [or will] walk [shall or will be walking]. 

Hence — 

Tense is that modification of a verb which expresses 
the time of the action, state, or being. 

There are six tenses : the present, the past, the future, 
the present perfect, the past perfect, and the future 
perfect. 

The present tense expresses the action or being as 
present : I study my lesson now. 

The past tense expresses the action or being as past : 
I studied my lesson yesterday. 

The future tense expresses the action or being as yet 
to come : I shall study my lesson to-morrow. 

The present perfect tense expresses the action or 
being as completed within the present time: I have 
studied my lesson to-day. 

The past perfect tense expresses the action or being 
as completed at some past time specified : I had studied 
my lesson when you came. 

The future perfect tense expresses the action or 
being as to be completed at some future time specified : 
I shall have studied through this chapter by to-morrow 
night. 

can be given by a conjunction — if or though — and need not be repeated 
in the verb. — Bain. 

Formerly the present subjunctive was used in expressing present time; 
but at present it is properly used only when reference is had to future 
time. Even then, it is regarded by the most learned grammarians as an 
elliptical form of the potential. — Tweed. 



130 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Remark. — The first two tenses are called simple tenses; the 
other four, compound tenses. 

Along with the simple or present infinitive to walk, 
we have the perfect, to have walked (known also as the 
present perfect), and the corresponding progressive 
forms to be walkiiig, to have been walking. 

Along with the present participle walking, we have 
not only the simple past ivalked, but the compound 
forms : perfect, having walked (by some called perfect, 
by others past perfect) and progressive, having been 
walking. 

PERSON AND NUMBER. 

A verb may vary its form to a certain extent, in con- 
sequence of difference in the person of its subject: — 

(1) First — I walk [or am walk-im/]. 

(2) Second — You walk [or thou walk-es£, art walking]. 

(3) Third — He walk-s [or he walk-e^, is walking]. 

The form may be varied in consequence of difference 
in the number of its subject : — 

(1) Singular — [See (1), (2), and (3) above.] 

(2) Plural — We, you, or they walk [or are walking]. 

Hence verbs are said to agree with their subjects in 
person and number. 

These changes in English are very few. Except in the 
case of the verb be the only inflections are for the second 
person singular (old style) and the third person singu- 
lar of the present tense, indicative mode. The first 
person singular and all the persons in the plural, in the 
present indicative, are alike. 



VERBS CLASSIFIED. 



131 



CONJUGATION. 

The conjugation of a verb is the regular arrange- 
ment of its modes, tenses, persons, numbers, participles, 
and infinitives. 

As we have seen, the modes and tenses are formed 
partly by changes made in the verb itself, and partly 
by the help of other words prefixed to the verb or. its 
participle ; hence — 

Auxiliary or helping verbs are those which help in 
the conjugation of other verbs. 

Our Saxon forefathers never put to before the infini- 
tive proper. Instead of to drink, for example, they 
would say drinc-<m. As the suffixes fell into disuse, they 
were replaced by prepositions ; and, instead of saying, 
I like drinc-an, or I like walk-ew, people began to say, 
I like to drink, I like to walk. Some verbs, however, 
were so often companions to the infinitive that it was 
found unnecessary to insert to. Hence we have such 
forms as : — 

I bade him "\ r I ordered him ^ 

I let him } come = <{ I permitted him } to come. 

I made him J I I compelled him J 



I can 




I am able 


I dare 




I venture 


I may 




I am allowed 


I must 


► come = < 


I am forced 


I shall 




I am sure 


I should 




I ought 


I will 




I am resolved 



to come. 



Most of these verbs have thus lost their original inde- 
pendence, and have sunk into mere indications of the 



132 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

time of an action or the manner of its assertion ; as, I 
may go, I shall go. 

The auxiliary verbs are — 

(1) Emphatic : do {did) ; as, I do think so, I did see it. 

(2) Passive : be (am, was, been) ; as, He ivas defeated. 

(3) Tense [time] : have (had), shall, will ; as, I shall go, I 
had gone. 

(4) Mode [manner] : may (might), can (could), should, would, 
must ; as, I may go, I must go. 

i 

The verb that is helped by the auxiliary is called 
principal. Their combination is regarded as a unit. 
Thus, might have been given, a verb-phrase, is a verb. 

Do, be, have, and will are sometimes principal : — 

Do this 

I did it. 

Be silent. 

1 am [= I exist]. 

I shall be. 

I have it. 

He willed me his dog. 

The conjugation of the copula contains three distinct 
roots — am, be, and was, — all of which appear in the 
principal parts, am, was, been. 

The eleven distinct forms found in the full conjuga- 
tion of this verb are — 



am 


was 


be 


art 


wast 


being 


is 


were 


been 


are 


wert 





With the omission of the old forms, so seldom used, the 
scheme is : — 



VERBS CLASSIFIED. 



133 



Present Tense. 

I am 

He is 

We 

You 

They 



Indicative Mode. 

Past Tense. Future Tense. 



[ are 
J 



I 

He 
We 

You 
They 



was 



1 

} were 

J 



I 

You 

He 

We 

They 



shall or will be. 



Present Perfect. 



Past Perfect. 



Future Perfect. 



I 

You 
We 
They 
He . 



1 

\ have been. 
I 

J 
. . has been. 



I 

You 

He 

We 

They 



had been. 



I 

You 

He 

We 

They 



shall or will 
have been. 



Potential Mode. 



Present Tense. 
I 



You 
He 
We 
They 



may, 
can, or 
must 
be. 



Past Tense. 
I 
You 



He 
We 
They J 



might, 
could, 
would, or 
should be. 



Present Perfect. 

may, can, 
or must 
have 
been. 



You 

He 

We 

They J 



I 

You 

He 

We 

They 



Past Perfect. 
might, 
could, 
would, or 
should 
have been. 



Imperative Mode. 
Be. 

Infinitives. 

Present : To be. Perfect : To have been. 

Participles. 

Present: Being. Past: Been. 

Do is conjugated in all of its parts as a transitive 
verb. As auxiliary, it is used (1) to make the em- 
phatic form of the present and past indicative and the 

Note. — Subjunctive Mode. 



Present Tense. 




Past Tense. 


If I 




If 


I 




you 






you 




he 


• be. 




he 


• wer 


we 






we 




they J 






they , 





134 ENGLISH GBAMMAR. 

imperative : I do walk, I did walk, Do give it to him ; 
(2) in negative and interrogative forms : I did not see 
him, Did you believe it? 

Have is the auxiliary of perfect tenses, and expresses 
finished action: I have said, He had spoken. As prin- 
cipal or independent verb, it expresses possession : I 
have one, We had some. 

Will meant originally to desire, to wish. In this 
sense it is still an independent verb : — 
I will be cleansed. 
She willed me to leave my base vocation. 

Its past, or preterit, once wilede, became early wolede, 
and this led to would with the silent I. 

Shall (from sceal, sculon, present, and sceolde, sceol- 
don, preterit) appears to have once signified to owe. 
Hence Chaucer : — 

For by the faithe I shall to God. 

Whence we learn the meaning and the derivation of 
should. 

May (earlier either may or mow') is from Saxon magan, 
which had the force of the Latin posse, to be able. 
Wycliffe writes : — 

The great dai of his wrath the cometh and who shall mow [be 
able to] stand? 

The regular past was mought, the ancestor of our might. 
Can, expressing power, has a similar history : present, 

can; past, cuthe. The following are instances of its 

force as know : — 

1 lerne song, I can but smal grammere. — Chaucer. 

His fellow taught him homeward prively 

Fro day to day, tell he coude it by rote. — Ibid. 

Such is the descent of could. 



VERBS CLASSIFIED. 



135 



Must comes from the old English moste, past tense of 
the verb motan, to be able, be obliged. It is now used 
in all persons and tenses to denote necessity and 
obligation : — 

For as the fisse, if it be dry, 
Mote, in def aute of water, die. — Goiver. 
Men mosten given silver to pore [poor] f reres [friars] . — Chaucer. 

It may not be amiss to add that from the old English 
infinitive agan (present ah, past dhte) arise the modern 
owe and ought, which have been separated by the two- 
fold sense of their original, — I am a debtor, and I am 
under a moral obligation. The separation has given to 
the former the modern preterit owed, and has made the 
latter both preterit and present. Thus : — 

All England dhte for to knowe. — Old Political Song. 

I owe to be baptized of thee, and thou comest to me. — Wycliffe. 

Auxiliaries combine with — 

(1) Participles : present or active, I am writing ; past or passive, 
It was written. 

(2) Root-infinitives : I may, can, will [to] write ; I do [to] 
write. 

(3) Infinitives and participles : I shall [to] be writing, or shall 
[to] have written ; It shall [to] have been written. 



CONJUGATION OF THE VERB "LOVE." 
Principal Parts. 



Present. 


Past. 


Past Participle. 


Love. 


Loved. 
Indicative Mode. 

Present Tense. 


Loved. 


Singular. 




Plural. 


1st Per. I love, 




1st Per. We love, 


o 7 p ( Thou lovest, 
( You love, 




2d Per. You love, 




3d Per. They love, 


3d Per. He loves. 







136 



ENGLISH GRAMMAB. 



This tense may also be formed by prefixing the aux- 
iliary do to the verb ; this gives the emphatic form of 



conjugation : — 

Singular. 

1st Per. I do love, 

( Thou dost love, 
( You do love, 

3d Per. He does love. 



2d Per. 



Plural. 
1st Per. We do love, 
2d Per. You do love, 
3c? Per. They do love. 



The verb may be conjugated in the progressive form 1 
by joining the present participle to the different forms 
of the verb be : — 



Singular. , 
1st Per. I am loving, 


1st Per. 


Plural. 
We are loving, 


2J Per. \ Thou art lovin g> 
( You are loving, 

3d Per. He is loving. 


2d Per. 


You are loving, 


3d Per. 


They are loving. 


Singular. 
1st Per. I loved, 


Past Tense. 

1st Per. 


Plural. 
We loved, 


2d Per. 5 Thou lovedst > 
( Y r ou loved, 


2d Per. 
3d Per. 


You loved, 
They loved. 


'3d Per. He loved. 







This tense in the emphatic form is : — 

Singular. Plural. 

1st Per. I did love, 1st Per. We did love, 

Thou didst love, 2d Per. You did love, 

. You did love, 3d Per. They did love. 
3t? Per. He did love. 



26? Per 



■■{■ 



This tense in the progressive form is : — 

Singular. Plural. 

1st Per. I was loving, 1st Per. We were loving, 

( Thou wast loving, 26? Per. You were loving, 

( You were loving, 36? Per. They were loving. 

36? Per. He was loving. 

1 The progressive form denotes a continuance of the being, action, or 
state. 



26? Per. 



VERBS CLASSIFIED. 137 

Future Tense, 

This tense is formed by prefixing the auxiliary shall 
or will to the root infinitive : — 

Singular. Plural. 

1st Per. I shall or will love, 1st Per. We shall or will love, 

o , p ( Thou shalt or wilt love, 2d Per. You shall or will love. 

( You shall or will love, 3c? Per. They shall or will love. 
3d Per. He shall or will love. 

To express simply a future action or event, use shall 
in the first person and will in the second and third per- 
sons. To express a promise, determination, command, 
or threat, use will in the first person and shall in the 
second and third persons. 

Present Perfect Tense. 

This tense is formed by prefixing the auxiliary have 
to the past participle : — 

Singular. Plural. 

1st Per. I have loved, 1st Per. We have loved, 

o 7 p ( Thou hast loved, 2d Per. You have loved, 

(. You have loved, 3d Per. They have loved. 

3c? Per. He has loved. 

Progressive form: I have been loving. 

Past Perfect Tense. 

This tense is formed by prefixing the auxiliary had 
to the past participle : — 

Singular. Plural. 

1st Per. I had loved, 1st Per. We had loved, 

2 7 p f Thou hadst loved, 2c? Per. You had loved, 

1 You had loved, 3c? Per. They had loved. 

3d Per. He had loved. 

Progressive form : I had been loving, etc. 



138 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Future Perfect Tense. 
This tense is formed by prefixing the auxiliaries shall 
have or will have to the past participle. 

Singular. Plural. 

1st Per. I shall or will have 1st Per. We shall or will have 
loved, loved, 

f Thou shalt or wilt 2d Per. You shall or will have 

2d Per. J have loved > loved, 

] You shall or will have 3d Per. They shall or will have 
^ loved, loved. 

3d Per. He shall or will have loved. 

Progressive form : I shall or w T ill have been loving, etc. 

Potential Mode. 
Present Tense. 
This tense is formed by prefixing the auxiliary may, 
can, or must to the root infinitive : — 

Singular. Plural. 

1st Per. I may love, 1st Per. We may love, 

o j p f Thou mayst love, 2d Per. You may love, 

( You may love, 3d Per. They may love. 

3d Per. He may love. 

Past Tense. 

This tense is formed by prefixing the auxiliary might, 
could, would, or should to the root: — 

Singular. Plural. 

1st Per. I might love, 1st Per. We might love, 

o , p J Thou mightst love, 2d Per. You might love, 

i You might love, 3d Per. They might love. 
3d Per. He might love. 

Present Perfect Tense. 
This tense is formed by prefixing the auxiliaries may 
have, can have, or must have to the past participle : — 

Singular. Plural. 

1st Per. I may have loved, 1st Per. We may have loved, 

o 7 p ( Thou mayst have loved, 2d Per. You may have loved, 

( You may have loved, 3c/ Per. They may have loved. 
3d Per. He may have loved. 



VERBS CLASSIFIED. 139 

Past Perfect Tense. 

This tense is formed by prefixing the auxiliaries might 
have, could have, would have, or should have to the past 
participle : — 

Singular. Plural. 

1st Per. I might have loved, 1st Per. We might have loved, 

r Thou mightst have 2d Per. You might have loved, 

2d Per. { loved, 3d Per. They might have loved. 

I You might have loved, 
3d Per. He might have loved. 

The present potential implies either present or future 
time : It may be raining [now] ; I may go to town. 
The past potential denotes : — 

(1) Obligation absolutely : He should be thankful. 

(2) Habit or custom : He would be absent a week at a time. 

(3) Past ability : He could walk yesterday. 

(4) Present or future ability : I could do it now ; I could write 
to you next week; If I should write to you, etc. ; Should I [or were 
I to] leave to-day, I should return next week. 

Imperative Mode. 

Present Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

2d Per. Love [thou or you]. 2d Per. Love [ye or you]. 

Infinitives. 

Present Tense : To love. Past Tense : To have loved. 

Participles. 

Present: Loving. Past: Loved. 

Past Perfect : Having loved. 

Note. — Subjunctive Mode. (Generally introduced by if, though, etc.) 

Present Tense. Past Tense. 

Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. 

If I love, If we love, If I loved, If we loved, 

If f thou j love> If you love, lf J thou j loye ^ If you loved, 

I you i If they love. 1 you J If they loved. 

If he love. If he loved. 



140 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Interrogative and Xegative Forms. 

A verb may be conjugated interrogatively by placing 
the subject after the first auxiliary ; as, Do I love ? 
Could I have loved ? 

A verb may be conjugated negatively by placing not 
after the first auxiliary ; as, / do not love ; I could not 
have loved, 

A verb may be conjugated interrogatively and nega- 
tively by placing the subject and not after the first aux- 
iliary ; as, Do I not love? Could I not have loved? 

Formerly the verb was conjugated interrogatively in 
the present and past tenses by placing the subject after 
the verb ; and negatively by placing not after the verb ; 
as, Love /the Lord? I know not these things; Saw ye 
not the man? Such forms, though still common in 
poetry, are rarely used in prose. The verbs be and have, 
when principal verbs, are exceptions, as they do not 
properly take the auxiliary do; as, Had I the right? 
I am not the man. 

VOICE. 

Voice is that modification of a transitive verb which 
shows whether the subject of the verb names the actor, 
or the person or thing acted upon. 

If the subject names the doer of the action, the verb 
is said to be in the active voice; as, He loves; if it 
names the person or thing acted upon, the verb is said 
to be in the passive voice ; as, He is loved. 

To change a verb from active voice to passive, make 
the object complement of the active voice the subject 
of the passive voice ; as, (active) John struck James ; 
(passive) James was struck by John. 



VERBS CLASSIFIED. 



141 



An intransitive verb may, by help of a preposition, 
be used in the passive voice : — 

The sun shines on the sea. 
The sea is shone on by the sun. 

Sometimes the indirect object of a transitive verb is 
made the subject of a verb in the passive ; as, They 
gave him the letter ; He was given the letter. Though 
frequently used by good writers, this construction is a 
violation of the laws of language, and is to be con- 
demned. Better, The letter was given to him. 

Some intransitives have a passive form, but are not 
in the passive voice : — 

I am come [=1 have come]. 
He is gone [= He has gone]. 

To make the passive voice, place before the past or 
passive participle the proper form of the auxiliary be : — 



Indicative Mode. 



Present Tense. 


Past Tense. 


Future Tense. 


I am 




I was 


, 




I 




He is 


loved or 


He was 




loved or 


He 




We are 


■ being 


We were 




■ being 


We 


shall be loved. 


You are 


loved. 


You were 




loved. 


You 




They are . 




They were . 




They , 




Present Perfect. 


Past Perfect. 


Futur 


e Perfect. 


have 
You been 
We 1 loved. 


I 

He 

We 


i had been 
i loved. 


I 1 

He 

W r e \ 


shall or will 
have 


They J 


You 




You | 


been loved. 


He . . has been loved 


They 


J 


They J 






Potential Mode. 






Present Tense. Past Tense. 


Present Perfect. P 


ast Perfect. 


I 


I 


might, 


I 


may, can, I 


might, 


He 


may He 


could, 


He 


or must He 


could, would, 


We 


can, or We 


- should, 


We 


- have 


W^e 


• or should 


You 


must be Yo u 


or would 


You 


been 


You 


have been 


They , 


love 


)a ' They , 


be loved. 


Tl 


ey . 


loved. 


They 


loved. 



142 ENGLISH GRAMMAB. 

Imperative Mode. 
Be loved. 

Infinitives. 

Present : To be loved. Perfect : To have been loved. 

Participles. 

Present (progressive) : Being loved. Past : Loved, having been loved. 

Let the pupil be drilled in changing transitive verbs from the active to 
the passive, and from the passive to the active. Let him also be required 
to construct progressive forms for both voices, solemn forms included. 



EXERCISES. 

1. Pick out the verbals, explain how they are used, and give the 

sub-class of each : — - 
(1) She is fond of reading. (2) He loves to describe an event 
as present. (3) He, loved by all, loved everybody. (4) He is 
charged with having stolen a horse. (5) I dare do all that may 
become a man. (6) Let Henry go. (7) Seeing the man approach, 
she retraced her steps. (8) Made cheerfully, her promise made 
him happy. 

2. Make sentences containing verbals formed from the following 

words, and show how they are used : — 



help 


study 


hope 


go 


grow 


recite 


plow 


enjoy 


twinkle 


see 


declare 


come 


inquire 


learn 


suffer 


plot 



3. Tell whether the words in italics are auxiliary or principal : — 

(1) I think, therefore I am. (2) I learn that you have removed 
from town. (3) How does he? (4) I* will go. (5) I have many 
cares. (6) Did you do that ? (7) I will it. (8) I shall will him a 
thousand dollars. (9) He may have been killed. 

Note. — Subjunctive Mode. 

Present Tense : If I be loved, etc. Past Tense : If I were loved, etc. 



VERBS CLASSIFIED. 143 

4. Pick out the verbs, tell whether they are simple or composite ; 

if the latter, which part may be regarded as principal : — 

(1) He has stolen my horse. (2) Can storied urn or animated 
bust, back to its mansion call the fleeting breath ? (3) Did you 
see the comet ? (4) Your hat lies on the stand. (5) Close beside 
her, faintly moaning, fair and young, a soldier lay, torn with shot, 
and pierced with lances, bleeding slow his life away. (6) He was 
drunk before the liquor was drunk. (7) I am very much obliged 
to you. (8) I am obliged to go home. 

5. Put the verbs of the following sentences first into the past 

tense, then into the future ; then into the passive voice : — 

(1) The village master teaches his little school. (2) I hear thee 
speak of the better land. (3) He promises me a present. (4) His 
friends laugh at him. (5) The artful fellow imposes upon all. 
(6) I harm you not. (7) He tells me to go home. (8) She picks a 
rose. (9) He invades Italy. (10) His eloquence strikes them 
dumb. 

6. Express the sentences under 5 in all the tenses of the indica- 

tive and potential; then change from the active to the 
passive voice. 

7. Give all the participial forms, active, passive, and progressive, 

of — 



give 


choose 


keep 


hurt 


bite 


break 


find 


lead 


read 


wish 


sink 


feed 


save 


hold 


buy 


lose 



8. Use in short sentences the past perfect progressive of each of 
these verbs, and tell whether the verb is transitive or in- 
transitive, regular or irregular: — 



sow 


sell 


quit 


ring 


bind 


see 


smite 


shake 


win 


blind 


rebel 


get 


live 


heat 


plant 


hide 


loose 


stick 


wink 


know 



144 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

9. Write sentences illustrating the correct use of the principal 
parts of lie, sit, see, set, come, lay, rise, raise, do. 

10. Analyze the following verb-phrases : — 

(1) He shall be called Benjamin. (2) Did you think that I 
would do it ? (3) He is certainly writing. (4) You should have 
seen him when he was lifted out of the water. (5) Might not the 
danger have been avoided ? 

11. Justify or correct the parts in italics : — 

(1) I have saw it. (2) These is the plural of this. (3) Neither 
of them were here. (4) There comes the dogs. (5) I seen him 
yesterday. (6) It lays on the bed. (7) I raised up and struck 
him. (8) He has stole my pencil since I come. (9) Were the 
horses drove out? (10) The nation is prosperous. (11) Is not 
books a noun ? (12) He might have went. (13) He has fell from 
the tree. (14) Either you or I am going. (15) The merciful are 
blessed. (16) Money, as well as men, was needed. (17) He don't 
know. (18) Each of these expressions suggest anger. (19) Is the 
tongs in its place ? (20) 7s ten dollars too much? (21) We are 
agreed, says I. (22) To seem and to be are different. 

12. Change the following from active to passive : — 

(1) The Romans conquered the Britons. (2) They led the 
captive in chains. (3) Columbus discovered America. (4) The 
Teutons worshipped the sun and moon. (5) They offered him a 
pension. (6) They gave the poor man food. (7) The king 
adopted every means to secure his son the succession to the crown. 
(8) Henry invaded Normandy and took Robert prisoner. (9) Rich- 
ard readily pardoned his ungrateful brother John. (10) Ivy covers 
the walls of the abbey. 

13. Compose five sentences containing the present progressive 

indicative, active voice. 

14. Five containing the past progressive active. 

15. Five containing the past perfect active. 

16. Five containing the past perfect passive. 

17. Five containing the future perfect passive. 

18. Six illustrating the correct use of may, might, can, could, would, 

should. 



VERBS CLASSIFIED. 145 



QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW. 

1. What must the predicate of every sentence contain ? 

2. What is a complete verb ? An incomplete verb ? 

3. Give examples of each. 

4. What is meant by the complement of a verb ? 

5. W T hat may the object of a verb be ? 

6. What is a transitive verb? An intransitive verb? A copu- 

lative verb ? 

7. Give examples. 

8. Show that the same verb may be sometimes transitive, some- 

times intransitive. 

9. Name the principal copulative verbs. 

10. What is meant by the copula? 

11. When is the verb be a complete verb ? 

12. Give examples of intransitive verbs used as copulatives. 

13. What is an impersonal verb ? 

14. Why so called? 

15. Give examples. 

16. What is meant by verbals? 

17. How many kinds of verbals are there? 

18. Define present participle; past participle. 

19. How many infinitives are there ? 

20. Define root infinitive ; participial infinitive. 

21. How may the participial infinitive be distinguished from the 

present participle ? 

22. Give examples of each. 

23. As what parts of speech may the present infinitive be used ? 

24. Illustrate. 

25. What is meant by the principal parts of a verb? 

26. How are verbs classified with respect to form ? 

27. What is a regular verb? An irregular verb? 

28. What modifications have verbs ? . 

29. What is mode? 

30. How many modes are there? 

31. Define indicative mode ; potential mode ; imperative mode. 

32. What is meant by tense ? 

33. How many tenses are there ? 

34. Define each. 



146 ENGLISH GRAMMAB. 

35. What are simple tenses ? Compound tenses ? 

36. Give the perfect infinitive of love ; the past perfect participle. 

37. What is meant by the person and number of a verb? 

38. What are the only inflections in English for person and 

number ? 

39. What is conjugation ? 

40. What are auxiliary verbs ? 

41. What is meant by the principal verb ? 

42. Name the principal auxiliary verbs. 

43. Which of the auxiliary verbs are sometimes used as principal 

verbs ? 

44. Name the eleven distinct forms found in the conjugation of be. 

45. As an auxiliary what does do express ? What does have express ? 

46. What is the meaning of may f Of can f Of must ? 

47. With what do the auxiliaries combine ? 

48. How is the present tense, indicative, formed ? The past in- 

dicative ? 

49. What is meant by the emphatic form of conjugation ? By 

the progressive form ? 

50. What does the progressive form denote ? 

51. How is the future indicative formed ? The present perfect 

indicative ? The past perfect indicative ? The future per- 
fect indicative ? 

52. When do we use shall in the first person and will in the second 

and third persons? 

53. When do we use ivill in the first person and shall in the second 

and third? 

54. How is the present potential formed ? The past ? The pres- 

ent perfect ? The past perfect ? 

55. What does the present potential imply ? 

56. What does the past potential denote ? 

57. Give the infinitives of the verb love ; the imperative ; the 

participles. 

58. How may a verb be conjugated negatively? Interrogatively? 

Negatively and interrogatively ? 

59. What is voice ? 

60. Give rule for changing from active to passive voice. 

61. How may intransitive verbs be used in the passive voice? 

62. How is the passive voice formed ? 



VERBS CLASSIFIED. 



147 



SYNOPSIS FOR REVIEW. 
The Verb. 



1. Principal Parts 



r As to Form. 



2. Class 



As to Use 
r Voice . . 



-\ 



r Present indicative, 
\ Past indicative, 
I Past participle. 



Regular (weak), 
Irregular (strong), 
. Defective (deficient in any 
of its simple forms). 
Transitive, 
Intransitive. 



3. Modifications. < 



Mode 



Tense ....<! 



Number 



( Active, 

( Passive. 

( Indicative, 
" " " ] Potential, 

^ Imperative. 

r Present, 
Past, 
Future, 

Present perfect, 
Past perfect, 
Future perfect. 

( Singular, 

1 Plural. 

( First, 



4. Form 



^ Person . . j Second, 
I Third. 

Common (ordinary, usual), 
Emphatic, 
Progressive, 
[ Interrogative. 



5. Function 



Asserts action, being, or state, of what ? 



148 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



CHAPTER IX. 
Adverbs Classified. 

An adverb is a word used to limit the application of 
a verb, adjective, or other adverb. There are instances 
where the adverb seems to throw its force on a preposi- 
tion ; as, long after the event, much before the event, 
greatly above him ; but in these cases the adverb may 
be said to modify really the adverbial or adjective 
phrase. The chief varieties are adverbs of — 

1. Place or local; as, here, there, where, above, below, 
near, by, first, secondly, yonder, thence, whence, hence, 
hither, thither, whither, etc. Hence, thence, and whence, 
as adverbs of place, mean from this place, from that 
place, from what or which place. Hither is equal to to 
this place ; thither, to that place ; and whither, to which 
place. 

The word there has a very peculiar use. Instead of 
saying once a good king was or once a good king existed, 
we say there was once a good king. In this use the word 
has no reference to the idea of place — it is a mere 
introductory (or expletive) word. Nor is it difficult to 
account for the transition. To say that a thing is in a 
certain place is implicitly to say that it exists ; and 
hence the localizing statement, once a king was there, 
has become the statement of existence, 1 there was once a 
king [= a king once existed\ 

1 Bain. 



ADVERBS CLASSIFIED. 149 

2. Time, or temporal ; as, ever, never, lately, often, 
as, once, twice, daily, while, when, to-day, hereafter, next, 
hence (from this time), etc. 

3. Cause, or causal ; as, therefore, wherefore, why, 
thus, hence, thence, whence, etc. 

4. Degree, or measure, or intensive [how much ?] ; 
as, almost, nearly, little, partly, sufficiently, so, somewhat, 
as, much, quite, very, exceedingly, etc. 

5. Manner, or modal : (1) well, wisely, how, etc. ; 
(2) truly, surely, probably, not, etc. 

Those under (1) throw their force, in general, upon 
words: those under (2) more especially upon state- 
ments, showing how the thought is conceived; as in, 
He is certainly, probably, possibly, or not sick. 

6. Yes, yea, and no and nay used in responding to 
questions are called responsives. They modify very 
loosely, if at all, being really the equivalents of sen- 
tences. 

Other parts of speech are occasionally used as ad- 
verbs. Many words that in their usual application are 
prepositions, are thus employed : — 

He stood by. He went down. Go in and see him. He passed 
through. 

Also : — 

(1) He went home. (5) Right against the window. 

(2) He sat an hour. (6) A pale blue color. 

(3) Drink deep. (7) The more the merrier. 

(4) The sea-wind sang shrill. (8) Stone deaf. 

(1) and (2) may be explained by the abbreviation of 
the adverbial phrases, to his home, for or during an 
hour; (3) and (4) are mainly the usage of poetry; 
(6), (7), and (8) show adjective and noun used as 
adverbs of degree. 



150 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The equivalents of the adverb are often phrases and 
clauses : — 

Easy to see. (Phrase of degree.) 
The sun sets in glory. (Phrase of manner.) 
Convenient for overseeing the work. (Phrase of degree.) 
At sunrise the ship sailed. (Phrase of time.) 
The sun rising, the ship sailed. (Logically a phrase of cause.) 
When the sun rose, the ship sailed. (Clause of time.) 
As thy day is, so shall thy strength be. (Clause of degree.) 
If you go, I will follow. (Clause expressing a cause upon 
condition.) 

I will follow wherever you go. (Clause of place.) 

7. Some of the above, used in asking questions, may 
be called interrogative adverbs ; as, when, where, 
whither, whence, why, how, — all derived from the 
Anglo-Saxon hwa, who. 

8. Adverbs introducing a modifying clause are con- 
junctive ; and since they possess all the modifying 
power of adverbs, they are called conjunctive adverbs. 

The conjunctive adverbs are, when, where, while, 
ivhence, whereby, wherefore, why, wherein, as, whereon, 
whereat, whenever, wherever, than, that, the, after, before, 
ere, since, till, and until. 

9. They are also, it will be remembered, used with 
the value of relative pronouns : He died in the house 
where [= in which] he was born. As relatives they 
are equivalent to prepositional phrases containing which 
and sometimes also its antecedent. 

The adverbial relatives are of great use in varying 
the language of composition. 

(a) I will praise thee while [= at the time in which] I live. 
(5) He died in the house where [ = in which] he was born, 
(c) That is the reason why [= for which] I w T ept. 



ADVERBS CLASSIFIED. 151 

(d) He went before [= at a time before which] I came. 

(e) Wait until [= for the time at which] I come. 
(/) The older he grew, the wiser he became. 

He became wiser in that degree in which he grew older. 
(g) He came as [= at the time at which] I was leaving. 
(h) He is as good as he is great. 

He is good in the degree in which he is great. 
(i) He called so [= to that degree] loud that [= in which] the 
entire neighborhood was aroused. 

The same adverb, it should be understood? may re- 
quire different classifications in different connections : — 

(a) He never will submit. (Time.) 

(b) The Lord is king, be the people never so impatient. (Degree.) 

(c) He is as good as he is great. 

(d) As I was coming from church, I met her. 

In (<?) the first as is an adverb of degree ; the second, 
a conjunctive adverb. In (cT) the as is an adverb of 
time and also conjunctive. 

It will sometimes happen that a word has clearly a 
double character, and we have then to consider which, 
if either, of its uses is principal : — 

(1) He sat next. 

(2) He stood firm. 

(3) He went away sorrowing. 

(4) He rode seated between two officers. 

(5) How jocund did they drive their team afield ! 

At (1) we are left to determine whether next is a 
definitive adjective or an adverb of time. The qualify- 
ing force in (2) seems to be about equally distributed 
between subject and verb ; in (3) and (4) there would 
appear to be a chief reference to the manner of the 
action. In (5) we find the poetic use of the adjective 
for the adverb. 



152 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



EXERCISES. 



1. Distinguish between we feel warm and we feel warmly. 

2. Make sentences in which each of the following expressions 

shall be used as two or more parts of speech, one in 
every case being an adverb. Give the sub-class : — 

out little by all means 

ill enough beyond all doubt 

far below when he came 

very only if he will go 

well there where she was so happy 

before away so, as 

much , in no respect 

3. Classify the adverbial modifiers : — 

(1) They rejected, with contempt, the ceremonious homage 

which other sects substituted for the pure worship of 
the soul. 

(2) He understood by their signs that they wished to be in- 

formed whence he came. 

(3) She herself drew the design of that monument with her 

own hand, and left it with me when she went away. 

(4) Cowper said, fifty or sixty years ago, that he dared not 

name John Bunyan in his verse, for fear of causing a 
sneer. 

(5) We live in better times. 

(6) Admirable as the natural world is for its sublimity and 

beauty, who would compare it, even for an instant, with 
the sublimity and beauty of the moral world? 

(7) When life begins, like a distant landscape, gradually to 

disappear, the mind can receive no solace but from its 
own ideas and reflections. 

(8) Not many generations ago, where you now sit encircled 

with all that exalts and embellishes civilized life, the 
rank thistle nodded in the wind and the wild fox dug 
his hole un scared. 

(9) After this bustle of preparation, and amid the silence 

which follows it, Henry Brougham takes a slow and 
hesitating step toward the table, where he stands 



ADVERBS CLASSIFIED. 



153 



crouched together, his shoulders pulled up, his head 
bent forward, and his upper lip and nostril agitated by 
a tremulous motion, as if he were afraid to utter even 
a single sentence. 

(10) It seems easier to do right to-morrow than to-day, merely 

because we forget that, when to-morrow comes, then 
will be now. 

(11) During her wane, while inferior luminaries were brighten- 

ing around her, he was growing fainter and smaller 
every evening. 



MODIFICATION OF ADVERBS. 

The only inflection of adverbs is comparison. The 
signification of some does not admit of degrees ; as, now, 
never, universally, then, here, thirdly, immediately, etc. 
Such as can be compared, form a comparative and a 
superlative degree in the manner of adjectives : — 
often often er oftenest 

pleasantly more pleasantly most pleasantly 

pleasantly less pleasantly least pleasantly 

Being usually longer, they more rarely admit the use 
of er and est. A few coincide with the irregular 



adjectives : — 






little 


less 


least 


well 


better 


best 


ill 


worse 


worst 


much 


more 


most 


forth 


further 


furthest 


far 


farther 


farthest 1 


late 


later 


latest or last 


[rathe 2 ] 


rather 




nigh or near 


nearer 


next 



1 O. "E.feor, fyrre, fyrrest. The comparative should befarrer. The th 
has crept in from a false analogy with further, 

2 O. E. hrathe, early. " Late and rathe" — Piers Plowman. Used 
only in the comparative. 



154 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

A distinction is generally made in the use of further 
and furthest to express progress or advancement, and 
farther and farthest in regard to distance. 

EXERCISES. 

1. Write sentences in which at least ten words taken from the list 

of irregular adverbs shall be used as two parts of speech, one 
of which shall be adverbial. 

2. Pick out the adverbs and adverb phrases ; give the sub-class of 

each; and compare such as admit of comparison: — 

(1) We were clearly and particularly shown how the work was 
done. (2) The birds sing sweetly. (3) We often resolve ; we 
rarely fulfil. (4) Still waters are commonly deepest. (5) He has 
been much deceived. (6) They have been long absent. (7) He 
spoke with a clear voice. (8) They showed us the work with much 
patience. (9) He was here yesterday, and will return to-day at 
two o'clock. (10) He labored excessively upon his task ; it was 
therefore well done. (11) On all occasions she behaved with pro- 
priety.. (12) Mentally and physically we are curiously and wonder- 
fully formed. (13) The task is already more than half done. 
(14) First, I am to show the nature, and, secondly, the importance 
of this virtue. (15) I shall for that reason warmly befriend him. 

3. Show whether the words in italics are used as adverbs or 

prepositions : — 
(1) The debate went on. (2) Let us go down the river. 

(3) Down, down, they go, the Gael above, Fitz- James below. 

(4) He stamped on the floor. (5) Ice came floating by. (6) Tell 
us about the war. (7) A good south wind sprung up behind. 
(8) He threw the water about. (9) The giants piled Ossa above 
Pelion. (10) Behind the horseman sat black Care. (11) Pluck 
off the golden apple. (12) Gunpowder was placed in the cellars 
below the house. (13) Stand by my side. (14) All is lost but 
honor. 

4. In the following sentences point out the conjunctive adverbs, 

and explain their uses : — 
(1) I do not know where the place is. (2) The paper holds 



ADVERBS CLASSIFIED. 



155 



attention while I read. (3) When the time comes, the men will 
be found where they ought to be. (4) I asked not whence he 
came nor whither he was going. (5) The engineer explained how 
it was done. (6) " Whence is it?" he asked. (7) Whither I go, 
ye cannot come. 



10. 
11. 



12. 
13. 



QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW. 

Define adverb. 

Name eight classes, giving examples of each. 

What is the meaning of hence as an adverb of place ? as an 

adverb of time ? as an adverb of cause ? 
Give the phrase equivalents of thence and whence as either 

local or causal adverbs. 
Explain a peculiar use of there. 
Give two exceptions to the uses of adverbs as named in the 

definition. 
Give three examples showing that other parts of speech may 

become adverbs. 
Give examples showing the same adverb in different classes. 
Give an example of an adverbial phrase, naming its class ; an 

example of an adverbial clause. 
What double office is performed by the conjunctive adverbs? 
Make sentences containing the following words as conjunctive 

adverbs, and explain their construction : whence, wherever, 

ere, after. 
What inflection have adverbs ? 
Give the inflection of eight irregular adverbs. 



Classes. 



SYNOPSIS FOR REVIEW. 
The Adverb. 



Time, 

Place, 

Cause, 

Degree, 

Manner, 

Responsive, 

Interrogative, 

Conjunctive, 

Relative. 



Modification . 



Uses.— To Limit < 



Comparison. 



Verb, 

Adjective, 

Adverb, 

Preposition, 

Statement. 



156 ENGLISH GBAMMAB. 



CHAPTER X. 

Prepositions, Conjunctions, and Interjec- 
tions Classified. 

A preposition is a word that connects its object to 
some other word. 

Prepositions are so named because they were origi- 
nally prefixed to the verb to modify its meaning, as in 
forswear. 

They were first local, indicating rest or motion ; as, 
in, on, at, by, to, into, from, under, behind, between, 
among, upon, off, above, for (meaning before}, etc. 

By degrees they came to denote the relations of time, 
as well as of place ; as, since, till, until, during, pending, 
after, in a year, by Christmas, near six o'clock, within 
the week, etc. 

Then they were further extended to denote other 
relations : agency and instrumentality; as, by, through, 
ivith ; end and reason ; as, for, from ; reference ; as, a 
work on grammar, I sing of war, touching this matter ; 
possession; as, the book of the scholar [= the scholar's 
book]; material; as, a crown of gold [ = golden 
crown] ; exclusion ; as, none but him, save one, all 
except John, without, besides, etc. 

Many phrases are conveniently, though not always 
logically, treated as prepositions. Such are — 

as for in spite of out of 

as to according to from out of 



PREPOSITIONS CLASSIFIED. 157 

by means of in accordance with instead of 

in point of for the sake of from under 

in respect of because of as regards 

in case of by way of by virtue of 

The parts of such phrases, when possible, should be 
classified separately. 

The noun and its equivalent, before which the prepo- 
sition is placed, is called its object. The object of a 
preposition may be — 

1. A word; as, He gave me a box of oranges. 

2. A phrase ; as, She spends her time in studying 
music ; He swam from under the bridge. 

3. A clause ; as, They were disputing about where 
they should camp for the night ; Have they any certain 
knowledge of when the prisoner escaped ? 

Frequently, especially in poetry, the object precedes 
the preposition : — 

(1) What did you come for ? 

(2) Look the whole world over. 

(3) I must use the freedom [that] I was born with. 

(4) This is the will [that] I told you of. 

Sometimes, as in (3) and (4), the object is omitted. 

A prepositional complement sometimes . enters into 
the structure of a verb-term as an organic constituent : — 

His zeal was wondered at. 

The case shall be attended to. 

We have a peculiar character to keep up. 



LIST OF PREPOSITIONS. 

The following are the principal prepositions, arranged 
alphabetically : aboard, about, above, across, after, against, 
along, amid or amidst, among or amongst, around, at, 



158 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

athwart; bating, before, behind, below, beneath, beside 
or besides, between or betwixt, beyond, by ; concerning ; 
down, during ; ere, except, excepting ; for, from; in, 
into ; mid or midst ; notwithstanding ; of, off, on* 
over, overthwart ; past, pending ; regarding, respecting, 
round ; since ; through, throughout, till, to, touching, 
toward or towards; under, iinderneath, until, unto, up, 
upon; with, within, ivithout. 
The prepositional phrase is — 

1. Adjective, when the preposition unites its object 
to a noun or t pronoun; as, A field of waving grain; 
Which of you sent me this ? 

2. Adverbial, when the preposition unites its object 
to a verb, adjective, or adverb; as, He went to town; 
The willows are hoary with age ; It is done well enough 
for all purposes. 

3. Substantive, when used as the subject or comple- 
ment of a verb, or as the object of a preposition ; as, 
Out of sight is out of mind ; The stranger came from 
across the sea. 

The following is a list of words with the prepositions 
which usually accompany them : — 

Abhorrence of. Agree with (a person). 

Abhorrent to. Agree to (a proposal). 

Absolve from. Angry with (a person). 

Accommodate (a thing) to. Angry at (a thing). 
Accommodate (a person) with. Clear of (harm), from (guilt). 

Accountable to (a person). Collide with. 

Accountable for (a thing). Compliance with. 

Acquaint (with). Concur with (a person). 

Adequate to. Concur in (an opinion). 

Admission to (access). Congenial to. 

Admission into (entrance). Connect with (an equal). 

Admonish of. Connect to (a subordinate). 



PREPOSITIONS CLASSIFIED. 



159 



Consistent with, in. 

Convert into. 

Convict of. 

Correspond to, with. 

Derogatory to. 

Desirous of. 

Die of with, from (hunger, etc.). 

Die by (the sword, etc.), for 
(another). 

Different from. 

Disagree with (a person). 

Disagree to (a thing proposed). 

Disappointed of (something not 
obtained). 

Disappointed in (something ob- 
tained). 

Discourage from. 

Disgusted with (a person), at, 
with, or by (a thing). 

Environ with. 

Espouse to. 

Exasperated against. 

Exonerate from. 

Fondness for. 

Frightened at. 

Frugal of. 

Hatred to, of 

111 of. 

Incapable of 

Incensed with, against. 

Incentive to. 

Inconsistent with. 

Infer from. 

Initiated into. 



Introduce into (a place), to (a 
person). 

Join to (something greater). 

Join with (something equal) . 

Killed by (agent), with (instru- 
ment) . 

Live at (a village), in (a city or 
country), on (the earth), on 
or upon (food). 

Love of for, to. 

Matter with. 

Mindful of. 

Xeed of 

Opposite to. 

Part from, with. 

Partial to, sometimes towards. 

Pity on. 

Prejudice against. 

Prohibit from. 

Protect (others) from. 

Protect (ourselves) against. 

Pursuance of. 

Pursuant to. 

Quarrel with. 

Regret for. 

Seized by (a person). 

Seized with (an illness). 

Sick of, with. 

Situated on (the side of). 

Situated in (a district). 

Suspected of, by. 

Swerve from. 

Sympathize with (a person), in 
(one's sorrow). 

Variance with. 



160 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



2. 



EXERCISES. 

Write sentences in which you use a prepositional phrase to 
limit the application of a noun, a pronoun, a verb, a 
verbal, and an adjective. 

Embody these phrases in sentences, and classify the preposi- 
tional phrase : — 



accuse of 
inquire of 
inquire for 
call on 
call at 
differ from 
agree with 
conversant with 



change for 
change to 
change into 
die by 
die of 
insist upon 
die for 
believe in 



offensive to 
prejudice against 
share in 
share of 
taste for 
taste of 
fall under 
fall into 



3. Classify the italicized parts : — 

(1) He runs about. 

(2) He runs about the house. 

(3) That was done long since. 

(4) That was done since yesterday. 

(5) He will come, since he always keeps his promises. 

(6) He will do this, for he promised. 

(7) He will do this for the sake 0/his promise. 

(8) He will do this for his promise' sake. 

(9) The Normans were superior in point q/* learning. 

(10) The Normans were superior in point 0/ learning. 

(11) He stabbed him from behind. 

(12) It was sold for under half its value. 

(13) The mountain trembles from on high. 

(14) He was well until quite recently. 

(15) The hare scoffed at the tortoise for his slowness, and 

challenged him to a race. " Let us run," said she, " up 
to yonder rock, and you shall have a start of half a 
mile." " Done," said the tortoise, and off he plodded. 
The hare sat down to watch him, and laughed till her 
sides ached. At last, tired with laughing, she fell 
asleep. Meantime, the tortoise had crept up the hill 
and was steadily approaching the goal. Now, too late, 



PBEPOSITIONS CLASSIFIED. 161 

the hare awoke from her sleep, and dashed after him 
with all her speed ; and indeed — so swift was she . — she 
nearly overtook him. But, before she had reached the 
top, the tortoise was up on the rock, waiting for the 
prize. 

QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW. 

1. Define a preposition. 

2. Why so named ? 

3. Give the classes of prepositions. 

4. Give examples of phrases treated as prepositions. 

5. How should the parts of such phrases be classified ? 

6. What is meant by the object of a preposition ? 

7. What may it be? 

8. Give an example of a phrase used as the object of a preposition. 

9. Give an example of a clause used as object of a preposition. 

10. When may the object of a preposition preoede it ? 

11. Name the principal prepositions. 

12. Name some that have the form of participles. 

13. Give examples of words that are sometimes prepositions and 

sometimes conjunctions or adverbs. 

14. When is a prepositional phrase adjective ? 

15. When adverbial V 

16. When substantive? 

17. Give examples of each. 

18. When a preposition is used to complete a verb, what may it be 

called ? 

19. Give an example, 

SYNOPSIS FOR REVIEW. 
The Preposition. 

Place, 



Classes 



Time, 
Agency, 
Reason, 
Reference, 
Possession, 
Exclusion, 
Use.— Connects what to what? V Material. 



162 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

CONJUNCTIONS CLASSIFIED. 

Conjunctions join words, phrases, clauses, and sen- 
tences. Their primary use is to unite sentences. A 
pure conjunction forms no part of a sentence, but simply 
serves as a hinge to unite grammatical elements. 

Conjunctions according to their use are divided into 
two classes : (1) co-ordinate conjunctions ; (2) subordi- 
nate conjunctions. 

Co-ordinate conjunctions join grammatical elements 
of the same rank. 

Subordinate conjunctions join grammatical elements 
of unequal rank. 

Co-ordinate conjunctions may be grouped under 
the following silb-clivisions : (1) copulative; (2) alter- 
native; (3) correlative ; (4) adversative ; (5) illative. 

The following will explain and illustrate these sub- 
classes : — 

1. Copulative; such as unite parts whose meaning 
adds to, or accords with, what precedes; as, and, also, 
likeivise, too, not only . . . but, moreover, besides, now, 
well, jirst, secondly. And is the most important — it 
unites, and does no more. The rest are adverbs, having 
the same effect of union, but with additional shades of 
meaning. 

2. Alternative ; those that offer or refuse a choice ; 
as, or, nor, either, neither, else, either . . . or, etc. 

3. Correlative ; pairs of the foregoing ; so called be- 
cause one calls for, and answers to, the other: either 
. . . or, neither . . . nor, both . . . and, not only . . . 
but, whether . . . or. 

4. Adversative; those that imply something adverse 
or opposed to what precedes ; as, but, yet, however, still, 



CONJUNCTIONS CLASSIFIED. 163 

nevertheless, and (rarely) only. The first of these is 
chief. Its characteristic meaning is suggested by its 
Anglo-Saxon form b-ut-an = be-ut-an = be + ut (out). 
It is a very forcible word. 

5. Illative ; those expressing inference or conclusion ; 
as, then, hence, therefore, thus, so, consequently, accord- 
ingly. Therefore occurs oftenest, and is the type of 
the class. 

Subordinate conjunctions break up into classes, the 
more common of which are : (1) place ; (2) time ; 
(3) cause and reason ; (4) condition ; (5) purpose or 
result; (6) comparison; (7) substantive; (8) relative. 
These join a dependent clause to that on which it de- 
pends, as follows : — 

1. Place ; as, where, whence : — 
I live wliere sunshine is perpetual. 

2. Time; as, when, as, while, until, before, ere, since, 
after, etc. : — 

He died as [or while] he was on his way to Washington. 
It has been done since you were here. 

3. Cause and reason; as, for, since, as, because, inas- 
much as, for as much as : — 

I will resume my seat, for I cannot be heard. 

As [or since - ] I cannot be heard, I will resume my seat. 

4. Condition ; as, if, unless, except, provided, although, 
albeit: — 

You will be saved if [or provided'] you repent. 
Except [or unless] you repent, you will perish.. 

5.. Purpose or result; as, that, in order that, lest, 
so that. Lest denotes the purpose or result to be 
avoided : — 



164 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

He died that we might live. 

He shouted till [or so that] the woods rang. 

They set a strong guard lest he should escape. 

6. Comparison; as, as, than. Thus — 

He is as tall as I [am tall]. 
He is taller than I [am tall]. 

The pupil should guard against the use of the adverb 
like for the conjunction as, to express similarity : — 
Do this like [as] I do. 
Nobody will miss her like [as] I shall. 

7. Substantive ; any of the preceding, and especially 
that, when introducing a substantive clause : — 

I asked when I should go. 
He said that he would go. 
That he will go is certain. 
I know where you are going, and how you will do it. 

8. Relative; relative pronouns and adverbs: — 
The time that you name is satisfactory. 

The time at which he will go is uncertain. 

The time when [or place wliere~\ he will go is uncertain. 

Where he goes, there go I. 

As ye sow, so shall ye reap. 

As to conjunctive phrases (as if, as soon as, so as, so 
far as, no sooner than, etc.), the words forming them 
should be considered separately whenever this is pos- 
sible. 

Only a few of the so-called conjunctions are used 
solely as such, — and, or, nor, lest, than. Even the last 
is treated as a preposition in such expressions as than 
whom there is no letter. The different sub-classes, too, 
shade into one another, the same conjunction having a 
variety of offices. Thus:- — 

(1) So you are late again, as usual. 



CONJUNCTIONS CLASSIFIED. 165 

(2) He did it as quickly as he could. 

(3) He was appointed as general. 

(4) He did it as you have done it. 

(5) As we are at leisure, let us enjoy ourselves. 

la (1) as is a relative pronoun; in (2) it is first an 
adverb of degree, then a conjunctive adverb; in (3) it 
is redundant — useless ; in (4) it is a pure conjunction, 
introducing a modal clause ; in (5) it introduces a 
clause of reason. 

The distinction between co-ordinate and subordinate 
conjunctions is an important one, especially in the 
analysis of sentences. When two clauses are united 
by a co-ordinate conjunction, the sentence is compound ; 
but by a subordinate conjunction, the sentence is com- 
plex. Again, if a word joins two clauses, it is a con- 
junction; but if in joining them it modifies a verb, an 
adjective, an adverb, it is a conjunctive adverb and 
performs a double office. 

In the sentence, John is as tall as William, the sim- 
plest way to dispose of as tall as is to call it a conjunc- 
tive phrase. But a more critical analysis is frequently 
required. If it is, the first as is an adverb, and the 
second as is a conjunctive adverb, because it connects 
the dependent clause, William (is tall) to John is tall, 
and also qualifies tall understood ; otherwise it may be 
regarded as a conjunction, if the ellipsis is not supplied. 

EXERCISES, 

1. Make a sentence in which each of these words shall be used as 
three or more parts of speech, two of which shall be 
conjunction and preposition — 
but before for 

since till except 

besides after notwithstanding 



yet 


if 


ere 


when 


still 


where 


that 


however 



166 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

2. Use whence, since, and that in two or more sab-classes. 

3. Use each of the following as two or more parts of speech, one 

of which shall be con j auction, and none of which shall 
be preposition — 

so 

now 
then 
also 

4. Give the class and sub-class of the italicized parts : — 

(1) As I looked up, I saw the man before me. 

(2) God shall help her, and that right early. 

(3) i If he do so bleed, 
I'll gild the faces of the grooms withal, 
For it must seem to be their guilt. 

(4) Awake, arise, or be forever fallen ! 

(5) But thou 
Revisit'st not these eyes . . . 
Yet not the more cease I to wonder. 

(6) We have no slaves at home — then why abroad ? 

(7) His face did shine as the sun. 

(8) He was of poor but honest parents. 

(9) Jn spite of all that you say, I still believe it. 

(10) He argued as if the world were aboat to end. 

(11) Then he returned. Well you know what followed next. 

(12) But I saw nothing but the long valley of Bagdad. 



QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW. 

1. What is a conjunction? 

2. Give the classes into which conjunctions are divided. 

3. In what respect do co-ordinate and subordinate conjunctions 

differ? Agree? 

4. Give and define the sub-division of co-ordinate conjunctions. 

5. Name and define the sub-divisions of subordinate conjunctions. 

6. Correct — I feel as though I would die. 



INTERJECTIONS CLASSIFIED. 



167 



1. Class 



SYNOPSIS. 
The Conjunction. 



Co-ordinate 



Subordinate 



2. Use 



r Copulative, 
Alternative, 
\ Correlative, 
Adversative, 
Illative. 
f Place, 
Time, 
Cause, 
Condition, 
Purpose or Result, 
Comparison, 
Substantive, 

Pronoun, 
Adverb. 
Connects what to what? 



Relative 



INTERJECTIONS CLASSIFIED. 

Interjections are words or cries that express a strong 
or sudden feeling. They are a part of speech in the 
sense, not of a modifier (though they do intensify or 
otherwise affect the statement), but of a means of ex- 
pression not wholly unlike a scream, a groan, a sigh. 
They are classed according to the emotion expressed, 
which may be — 

1. Joy ; as, oh, ah, ha, huzza, hurrah. 

2. Sorrow ; as, oh, ah, alas, well-a-day, dear me. 

3. Contempt and disapproval ; as, fie, fy, poh, faugh, 
fudge, f oh, pish, pshaw, pooh, tush, tut, whew, avaunt. 

4. Superior curiosity; as, heigh, hey, eh, oho. 
Still other uses are those of — 

5. Calling attention ; as, lo, ho, halloo, hem, hoy, 
ahoy, whoa, haiv. 



168 ENGLISH GBAMMAR. 

6. A call to silence; as, hist, hush, tut, mum. 

7. Greeting and parting*; as, hail, welcome, adieu, 
good-bye. 

Most interjections are founded upon grammatical 
words, and certain grammatical words may stand as 
interjections in an occasional way without permanently 
changing their nature. Thus : — 

Indeed — in deed = in reality. 

Hallelujah = praise ye the Lord. 

Alas = ah lasso = O miserable. 

O dear = dieu = O God. 

Good-bye = God V wi y ye = God be with you. 

Hail = Anglo-Saxon wes thu lial — be thou hale = be whole. 

Clearer examples of nouns, verbs, adverbs, and adjec- 
tives lapsing into the interjectional state may be seen in 
shame, farewell, soft, hark, behold, why, what, well, woe's 
the day. 

EXERCISES. 

Give the class and sub-class (if any) of italicized parts : — 

1. You like this, hey ? 

2. Away ! I prithee leave me ! 

3. What ! is great Mephistopheles so passionate ? 

4. ye judges ! it was not by human counsel . . . that this 

event has taken place. 

5. Tush ! tush ! 'twill not again appear. 

6. But hark! he strikes the golden lyre. 

7. What the mischief can he be doing? 

8. The ayes were declared to have it amidst the loud hurrahs. 

9. He pooh-poohed all their jingoes. 

10. Oh, what ?b fall was there, my countrymen ! 

11. Why, do you think him false? 

12. Why he spared me I knew not. 

13. Forget! forget! Is this thine only word? 

14. Good day, old friend ! and so you have returned. 

15. Hush and be mute, or else our spell is marred. 



FORMATION OF WORDS. 169 



CHAPTER XI. 
Formation of Words- 
Etymology is that division of grammar which treats of 
the origin, variation, derivation, and properties of words. 
All inflections illustrate the process of word-making. 
Thus our familiar am represents an original as-mi, a 
verb and a pronoun, meaning be-I. Is stands for as-ti, 
be-that. In like manner the d of loved is a remnant of 
did ; and I loved means I love-did = I did love = I did 
or performed a loving. Mi, ti, and did, once distinct 
words, have sunk into mere grammatical signs, with the 
exception of the latter, which still maintains its stand- 
ing as a separate word. 

Again, the second syllable of care-ful is easily recog- 
nized as the adjective full, jQt with the consciousness 
of its origin nearly lost. The ly of lovely is a relic of 
our common like, anciently lie, as in leoflic = love-like. 

In a vast number of our words we can thus discover 
two elements, one of which conveys the central idea. 
These cases, in which frequency of use has changed 
words of distinct meaning into meaningless endings, are 
broadly distinguished from others like fear-inspiring, ' 
break-neck, and house-top, which are directly translatable 
back into the elements which form them. But all com- 
binations run essentially the same course. There are 
couples which we to-day hardly know whether to write 
separately or with the hyphen, as well-known, mother- 
tongue. 



170 ENGLISH GBAMMAR. 

There are others so grown together that we seldom 
or never think of their double nature, as himself, herself. 
Sometimes the connection is so close that the original 
parts are quite obscured. Such is fortnight = fourteen 
nights. Such is breakfast, given to the morning meal 
because it broke the longest fast of the twenty-four 
hours. Fearless was once fear-loose (free from fear), 
and Pope says, " Be ware \beware~\ of man." 

In general there are four ways of making new words 
from given ones : — 

(1) By prefixes ; as, un-bind, co-heir. 

(2) By internal change ; as, gold and gild, think and 
thank. 

(3) By suffixes ; as, gold-en, hand-some. 

(4) By joining together distinct words ; as, steam- 
ship, white-wash. 

The first method usually changes the sense ; the third 
usually changes the part of speech. 

The union of parts frequently compels a change for 
the sake of easy and agreeable utterance ; as, col-lect for 
con-lect, dif-fer for dis-fer, di-vulge for dis-vulge, an-archy 
for a-archy. 

A word derived from another by the method of (1), 
(2), or (3) is called a derivative ; and the word from 
which it is made is called its primitive. A succession 
of suffixes and prefixes gives rise, of course, to relative 
or secondary primitives ; as, tru-th, truth-f ul, truthful-ly, 
un-truthful-ly. 

The union, in accordance with (4), of two words 
which are separately significant, is called composition, 
and the resulting word a compound ; day-star, sun-beam, 
rose-tinted. In general, the first component qualifies the 
second. Note the difference between finger-ring and 



FORMATION OF WORDS. 171 

ring-finger. Usually the compound throws the accent 
(or stress of voice) on the first part. Thus Newport is 
easily distinguished from new port. A mad house would 
be a family all deranged ; but a mad-house is a house 
for receiving the insane. 

We have already seen, however, that compounds tend 
to lose the identity of their parts, thus passing into 
derivatives; and that the latter really differ from the 
former only in their dimmed meaning. Broivning = 
brown-ing = dark or tawny offspring ; Egbert = eye-bright; 
Benedict = bene-dict — well-said ; sheriff = shire-reeve ; 
middle = mid-deal ; Massinger = mass-singer ; bridal = 
bride ale, a reminiscence of the marriage feast. 

A derivative, then, differs from a compound only in 
having a closer unity. In the one case a constituent 
has degenerated into a non-significant appendage, more 
or less corrupted and altered ; in the other it has thus 
far preserved, with measurable distinctness, its original 
character. 

While the following lists will greatly assist in dis- 
criminating native from foreign words, they will not 
afford a sure key to the origin of the words into which 
they enter. Though the strict rule for word-making is 
that all the parts of speech must be from the same lan- 
guage, English writers often permit themselves to form 
w r ords from different languages. Words thus formed 
are mongrels, or (which is the Greek for " mongrel ") 
hybrids : shepherd - ess = English + Norman - French ; 
social-ism or moral-ize = Latin + Greek. In botanical, 
the base and the primary suffix are Greek, and the 
secondary suffix is Latin; while botanically adds a Saxon 
element. 

The following are the important prefixes : — 



172 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



SAXON. 



a, an 


= on, in, from, back, of. 


( a-blaze, a-bed, a-foot, a-thirst, 
( a-rise, a-right, answer. 


at 


= at: 




at-one, at-onement. 


al 


— all : 




al-mighty, al-one, 1-onely, al-so. 


be 


= %(O.E.): 




(be-times, be-cause, be-friend, by- 
1 word, be-dew. 


for 


— negation : 




for-bid, for-swear, for-bear. 


fore > 
forth > 


— before : 




( fore-run, fore-tell, 

1 for-ward, forth-coming. 


in 


= in : 




in-sight, in-to, in-ure. 


mis 


= error: 




mis-deed, mis-take. 


off 


— from: , 




of-fal, off-shoot. 


on 


= upon : 




on-set, on- ward. 


out 


= beyond (0. E. 


ut): 


out-live, out-let, ut-ter. 


over 


= over: 




over-flow, over-coat. 


un 


= back, not : 




un-do, un-bind, un-true. 


under 


= beneath : 




under-go, under-sell. 


up 
■with 


= up: 

= back, against : 




up-hold, up-right, up-on. 
with-draw, with-stand. 



LATIN. 



Note. — Let the student, by help of a suitable dictionary, trace the 
present meaning of these words back to the meaning of prefix and root. 

I z=from : a-vert, ab-rupt, abs-tract, abs-cond. 



to, at: ad-join, ac-cretion, af-firm, ag- 
gregate, al-lude, ani-munition, an-nul, 
ap-plaud, ar-rogate, as-sist, at-tract. 



abs befor 


e c, t 


ad 




ac before 


c 


of « 


f 


ag " 


9 


al " 


I 


am " 


m 


an " 


n 


ap " 


P 


ar " 


r 


as " 


s 


at " 


t 



FORMATION OF WOBDS. 



173 



bene = well: bene-fit, bene-volent. 

circum= around : circum-vent, circum-scribe, circu-it. 

con > 

col before I = with, together : con-nect, con-temporane- 

com " b, p \ ous, col-lect, com-bine, corn-press, cor- 

cor " r rupt, co-eval, co-heir. 

co " vowel or h 

de = down, from, away: de-duce, de-press, de-throne. 

dis, di, dif — apart, in two, not: dis-join, di-verge, dif-fuse. 

ex 

e before d, n, I, m 

ef " / 

| = in, into, on, not : in-vade, il-lumine, im- 
} press, im-merse, im-piety, ir-radiate, 

ir-regular. 

= between : inter- vention, inter-line. 
= not : non-sense, non-entity. 

1 



out, out of: ex-press, e-ducate, e-lect, 
e-manate, ef-face. 



in 

il before I 
im " p, m 



inter 

non 

ob 

oc before c 

of " / 

op " p 

per 

post 

pre 

pro 

re 

semi 

sub 

sue before c 



! _ ( * n f ront °f : ob-stacle. 
( aqain 



) 



against: oppose. 



= (Ft. par) through: per-ceive, per-form, par-don. 

= after : post-pone, post-script. 

= before : pre-cept, pre-f ace. 

= (Fr. pour) forth, for-ward : pro-pose, pur-pose. 

= back, again : re-duce, re-deem, re-prove. 

= half: semi-colon, semi-circle. 



suf 
sug 
sum 
sup 
sur 
sus 



f 

9 
m 

P 
r 



■ under, from under : sub-tend, suc-cor, 
suc-ceed, suf-fer, sug-gest, sum-mons, 
sup-pose, sur-render, sus-pect. 



trans = (Fr. tres, tre) across : trans-form, tres-pass, tra-verse. 



174 ENGLISH GBAMMAB. 



GREEK. 

I — without : a-pathy, an-archy. 
an bef6re vowels ) 

amphi = on both sides : amphi-bious. 

ana — up, again, back : ana-lysis, an-ec-dote, ana-logy. 

I = opposite to, against : anti-thesis, ant-arctic. 
ant ) 

[■ = down, about : cath-olic, cat-egory. 
cat ) 

dia = through : dia-meter, dia-gonal. 

di, dis = two : di-phthong, dis-sy liable. 

ec 



= forth, out: ec-centric, ex-orcising. 
ex before vowels ) 

en ^ 

em before m, b, p \ = in, on: en-thusiasm, em-phasis, el-liptical. 

el " I J 

eu = well: eu-logy, eu-phony. 

ortho = right : ortho-doxy, ortho-epy. 

^ > = loving : philo-sophv, phil-anthropy. 

phil before vowel ) 

syn 

syl before I 

sym " b, 7n, p 

sy " s, z 



= ivith : syn-tax, syl-lable, sym-bol, sym-metry, 
sym-pathy, sy-stem. 



d 



Some of the important suffixes are: — 



SAXON. 

_ ( passive sense : dee-d (from do), see-d (from sow), 
( love-d. 

dom = condition : wis-dom, free-dom, Christ=en-dom. 

r participial or causative : bur-den (from bear), heav- 
en (heave), hast-en. 
en = { diminutive: kitt-en (from cat), gard(yard)-en. 

made of: flax-en, gold-en, wood-en. 
k feminine : vix-en (from fox). 



FORMATION OF WORDS. 



175 



er 

ar 
or 
ful 

ing 

ish 
less 
let 
ling 

iy 

ness 
ship 
some 



r agent : speak-er, begg-ar, sail-or, and (under Xor- 
= \ man Fr. influence) law-y-er, cloth-i-er. 

I instrument : fing-er, tirab-er, wint-er (from wind). 
— full of: hate-ful, need-ful. 
_ ( verbal ending : learn-ing. 

I diminutive : farth-ing. 
= (0. E. isc) quality of: boy-ish, fooi-ish. 
= loose, negation : art-less, god-less. 
= diminutive : stream-let. 

= diminutive : dar-ling (from dear), gos-ling. 
= (O. E. lie) like : mean-ly, home-ly, soft-ly, like-ly. 
= abstractive : wilder-ness, wit-ness^good-ness. 
= (O. E. scipe) form, shape : land-scape, lord-ship. 
= participation in : dark-some, quarrel-some. 
_ ( (O. E. ig) : bod-y, hone-y, an-y, blood-y, silk-y. It 
( has become ow in holl-ow, sall-ow. 



ROMANIC. 



age 



al, el 

ant, ent 

ance, ence - 
ancy,ency = 

ate = 

ble, able - 

eer = 

ess = 
fy 

ic = 

ine, in - 

ish = 

ism = 



, r condition : bond-age. 

<{ ?*esult : break-a^e. 
Norman-Fr. 



-i 



( Lat. aticum., througl: 

location: hermit-age. 

Lat. alis : cardin-al, coron-al, fu-el, jew-el, annu-al, 
equ-al, loy-al [= reg-al = Lat. reg-alis~\. 

Lat. antem, entem : gi-ant, stud-ent, ramp-f»nt, 
pati-ent. 

Lat. antia, entia ; abund-ance, sci-ence. 
Lat. antia, entia : brilli-ancy, excell-ency. 
Lat. atus ; leg-ate, delic-ate, agit-ate. 
(Lat. bilis, plex: sta-ble, mov-able, dou-ble [= Lat. 
( du-plex\ . 

Fr. er, ier ; Lat. arius : engin-eer, brigad-ier. 
Lat. itia : distr-ess, rich-es. 

"Lai. fcare, Fr. fier : edi-fy, magni-fy, signi-fy. 
| Lat. icus, ica: mus-ic, cler-k [=cler-ic], log-ic, 
I phys-ic. 

Lat. inus, inem: div-ine, fam-ine, orig-in, virg-in. 
Lat. esc-o, Fr. iss : establ-ish, fin-ish. 
Lat. ismus : de-ism, fatal-ism. 



176 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

ist = L'at. ista : bapt-ist, dent-ist. 

ive = Lat. ivus : act-ive, plaint-ive, pens-ive. 

ize = Lat. izare : civil-ize, fertil-ize. 

ment = Lat. mentum : gar-ment, argu-ment. 

. _ ( Lat. onem, ionem : apr-on, glutt-on, compan-ion, 
1 pig-eon. 



ose | _ 



ous 



Lat. osus: verb-ose, mor-ose, copi-ous, curi-ous. 



\ 

son = Lat. sionem : beni-son, ran-som, rea-son, veni-son. 

t, te = Lat. tus : discree-t, hones-t, mu-te, chas-te. 

ter == Lat. ter : mis-ter, mas-ter [= Lat. magiste?*], mus-ter. 

ure = Lat. ura : advent-ure, stat-ure, past-ure. 

/'Lat. ia: famil-y, victor-y [Lat. viclor-ia], 
y = i Lat. ium : stud-y, obsequ-y. 

I Lat. ous : spong-y. 

A study of etymology as to the derivation, structure, 
and meaning of words is one of the most important that 
the student can pursue. It is the key to an extended 
vocabulary. 

Of nouns, some are primitive ; as, eye, hand, hope. 
In the comparison of languages, they may sometimes 
be traced to forms still more primitive ; but so far as 
concerns English, they are the roots. Derived nouns 
are formed from other nouns, from adjectives, and from 
verbs, by prefixes, by internal change, but chiefly by 
suffixes : bishop~ric, kind-ness, song (sing), press-man, 
drunk-ard, choice (choose), life (live). 

In a similar manner derived verbs are extensively 
formed from verbs; as, beseech (seek), burn-ish, rise, 
raise, sit, set; from nouns; as, be-guile, empoiver, length-en, 
gild (gold), prize (price), hitch (hook) ; from adjectives; 
as, be-dim, en-dear, sweet-en. 

Derived adjectives are formed from nouns; as, rag- 
ged, wood-en ; from verbs ; as, win-some, teach-able ; 
from adjectives; as, un-wise, un-fair, year-ly, fulsome. 



FORMATION OF WORDS. 177 

Derived adverbs come principally from adjectives, by 
the addition of ly ; as, careless-ly, sweet-ly, bitter-ly. 
They are also formed from other parts of speech ; as, 
per-haps, a-part, a-drift, al(I)-ivays. al(l)-so. Our ad- 
verbs, like our adjectives," owe their descent, almost 
without exception, to other classes of words. Once and 
twice are but old genitives of one and two. When we 
say, It must needs be, Ave employ the genitive of need, 
originally need-es. Sometimes the adverb consists of 
several words run together; as, now-a-days, never-the-less. 

The chief prepositions are primitives ; as, of, from, to, 
for, by, tvith, over, under. A few are derived from other 
prepositions, from nouns, adjectives, or verbs ; as, a-long, 
a-round, be-yond, a-board, be-tween [by-twain = hj two], 
with-in ; ex-cept, concerning, notwithstanding, which in 
form are participles. 

Conjunctions are either simple underived words of 
the language ; as, and, if; or are appropriations from 
other parts of speech; as, since, except, that, before. 
Because is by cause, and than is from then, itself an 
ancient accusative. 

The great matter as regards derivation is to see clearly 
the meaning of significant prefixes and suffixes, and to 
use words accordingly. Dr. Chalmers, speaking of his 
success in dealing with pauperism in Glasgow, declared 
that what he had done was not an experiment, but an 
experience. Compare exceptional with exceptional, 
troubled sleep with trouble-some sleep. 

TO ANALYZE A WORD. 

1. Tell whether the word is simple or composite. 

2. If composite, resolve it into prefix (if any), stem 
(or root), and suffix (if any). 



178 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

3. Give the meaning of each element. 

4. Use the word in a sentence. 

5. Give a list of other words derived from the same 
root, or primitive word. 

EXERCISES. 

1. Combine the following prefixes and roots; give, as nearly as 

you can, the modifying force of the prefix; and tell what 
different parts of speech the resulting word may be : — 
a, ab, ad, and, be, bene, circum, con, de, e, ex, en, for, fore, in, mis, 
ob, out, over, pre, re, sub, syn, trans, un, under, up, ivith : ground, side, 
vert (turn), rupt (broken), tain (hold), torn (cut), join, judge, 
mount, fix, sure, tribute (give), arctic, pathy (feeling), lie, cloud, 
cause, fit (doing), volent (wishing), jacent (lying), spect (look- 
ing), stance (standing), fuse (pour), vene (come), moralize, tect 
(cover), appear, ease, tract, please, press, gress, mit (send), pecto- 
rant (breast), pand (spread), fulgence (shining), rage, gulf, grave 
(scrape), tomb, bitter, brace (arm), get, sake (seek), tell, see, 
taste, discreet, noble, modest, patient, liberal, regular, flame, fleet 
(bend). 

2. Join the following suffixes and bases; give, if you can, the 

source of each ; and state to what part of speech both primi- 
tive and derivative may or do belong : — 
ade, age, at, dom, ic, ion, ism, ess, ier, ine, ive, ix, ly, ment, er, ness, 
ship, ure, y, ate, ble, en, ful, ish, ous, some, fy, ize : hero, heir, create, 
abuse, operate, perceive, adhere, chariot, visit, school, hunt, edit, 
widow, foreign, stock, mite, post, bond, parson, duke, king, poet, 
possess, precise, expand, despot, critic, heathen, case, punish, arm, 
bold, happy, moist, seize, modest, grocer, private, lunatic, nation, 
origin, part, music, affection, consider, change, honor, value, divide, 
accede, silk, wool, hope, play, lyre, adamant, boy, fop, fame. 

3. Join into compounds : — 

wind, head, mill, strong, school, state, alms, house, door, key, 
God, man, like, snow, white, keeper, time, slave, born, wine, bibber, 
stone, blind, woman, servant, catch, word, in, chief, commander, 
land, high, love, self, star, day. 



FORMATION OF WORDS. 179 

4. Classify the following compounds, then classify the parts of 

each : — 
redbreast, singsong, dare-devil, handbook, rosebud, drawing- 
room, spitfire, turncoat, instep, forethought, byword, uprising, 
welcome, make-believe, ingathering, hearsay, sea-green, pitch- 
dark, childlike, spirit-stirring, lion-hearted, farfetched, overdone, 
fruit-bearing, roughhew, browbeat, lengthways, whereas, there- 
about, somehow, nowhere, without, upon, into, backbite. 

5. Resolve the following into their elements (bases, prefixes, and 

suffixes), and classify, where possible, indicating also the part 

of speech in derivative and primitive : — 
flattery, ending, coinage, aloud, monthly, blacken, linger, hinder, 
terrify, colonize, amid, along, perchance, enfold, untie, distrust, 
lengthen, active, lively, carelessly, oily, untrue, blackish, avoidable, 
lawless, beautiful, woollen, Romish, wretched, director, idler, trick- 
ster, replace, reconstruct, perfectible, annex, forefather, irresolute, 
misinform, suppress, repress, impress, impressible, irrepressible, 
facilitate, intrusive, thicken, youthful. 

6. Form derivatives from the following as bases, and classify 

both : — 
body, glory, weary, grace, incite, control, sw r im, awe, giddy, like, 
just, day, marvel, reverence, face, flame, vary, merry, annoy, holy, 
come, bind, new, vow, obstruct, expire, cat, thief, half, gird, fall, 
venture, Newfoundland. 

7. Derive single parts of speech from the following, and classify : — 
sick with love, struck with fear, deal in pictures, with a mouth 

of gold, like a god, inspiring dread, hunt after fortune, abide by 
the laws, gaze at stars, tell the truth, tossed by the tempest, sees 
all things, bright like the sun, a bearer of tales, about there. 



180 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



CHAPTER XII. 
Syntax. 

Syntax is that division of grammar which treats of 
the structure of the sentence. 

The word syntax is derived from the Greek, syn, 
meaning together, and taxis, meaning arrangement. The 
two English words, synthesis and construction, are often 
used instead of the word syntax. Syntax refers to those 
rules which should guide one in making sentences, or 
in passing judgment on sentences already expressed. 
Syntax, as thus used, is divided for grammatical purposes 
into three parts ; namely, Concord, Agreement, and Order. 

Concord, 1 from the Latin, signifies agreement ; as, a 
finite verb must agree with its subject in number and 
person, an adjective with its noun, a relative pronoun 
with its antecedent. 

Government is the influence that one word has on 
another word in a sentence ; as, that which a transitive 
verb has over a pronoun, a noun over its possessive, or 
a preposition over its object. 

Order refers to the positions words occupy in a sen- 
tence. 

SYNTAX OF CONCORD AND GOVERNMENT. 

Rule I. — The subject of a sentence is in the nom- 
inative case ; as, They think. 

1 Latin concordia, agreement. 



SYNTAX. 181 

This rule, obviously, has its chief application to the 
pronouns. It is seldom violated except by the un- 
taught. Mistakes like (1) and (2) are of the grossest 
kind ; (3) occurs most frequently in elliptical sen- 
tences : — 

(1) Them are good. 

(2) John and me went. 

(3) Is she taller than me [am tall] ? 

The following may be more easily pardoned : — 

This is a man whom [who] I think deserves encouragement. 

1. Any letter, sign, word, clause, or sentence used 
as a subject is in the nominative case. 

Rule II. — A noun or pronoun used to explain the 
meaning of a preceding noun or pronoun, is in the 
same case by apposition ; as, Mary, the queen, died at 
an early age. They banished Catiline, the conspirator. 

1. The noun or pronoun in apposition denotes the 
same person or thing as the preceding noun which it 
explains ; as, 2, John, saw these things. It is good for 
us to study grammar. They love each other. He assisted 
me when I was in great distress, — a kindness that I will 
never forget. 

2. The noun in apposition is an explanatory modifier. 
Apposition, from the Latin appositus, means put to; 
that is, the noun in apposition is put to the other noun. 

Rule III. — The attribute complement of a verb 
agrees in case with the subject of the verb, and the 
objective complement of a verb agrees in case with 
the object of the verb ; as, General Grreene was a pru- 
dent and skilful commander. They took him to be an 
honest man. He is called major. He was elected presi- 
dent. They elected him president of the convention. 



182 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Whom did you think it to be ? To be a voter is to be a 
sovereign. I was not aware of his being a foreigner = 
I was not aware that he was a foreigner. 

Rule IV. — A noun used independently or abso- 
lutely is in the nominative case ; as, William, come 
to me. The hour having arrived, we departed. 

1. A noun or pronoun is nominative independent, — 
(1) by direct address ; as, William, come to me. (2) By 
a mere exclamation ; as, Wretched man that he is ! 

2. A noun is in the absolute case when the noun and 
participle are used instead of a dependent clause ; as, 
The hour having arrived, we departed = When the hour 
had arrived, we departed. 

Rule V. — A noun or pronoun that is used to 
denote possession is in the possessive case, and is an 
adjective modifier ; as, Washington's life. 

And far by Ganges' banks at night, 
Is heard the tiger's roar. 

I was opposed to his going. 

The moon's attracting the water causes the tides. 

It is caused by the earth's revolving on its axis. 

1. This rule is modified by two principles, — clear- 
ness and euphony. The first forbids putting the pos- 
sessive sign on a word far removed from the base of the 
phrase : — 

Maximilian the Emperor's palace. 

The Emperor Maximilian's palace. 

Her Majesty Queen Victoria's government. 

2. The second governs everywhere in language, how- 
ever subordinately. Thus, in a series of possessives 
denoting common possession, the sign is annexed but 
once : James, Peter, and Henry's father. But separate 



SYNTAX. 183 

possession: James's, 1 Peter s, and Henry's father. Reg- 
ular construction would require, This book is your ; 
but, to avoid harshness, an illogical but euphonious s 
is added. Chaucer writes : — 

I wol be your in alle that ever I may. 
Again, regularity would require, a friend of me, that 
farm of Johnson, that ugly face of him ; but, friend of 
mine, farm of Johnson's, face of his, have a more pleas- 
ing sound. 

Rule VI. — A pronoun must agree with its ante- 
cedent in person, gender, and number ; as, I lost my 
knife ; it was on the floor. 

1. A pronoun relating to several antecedents of dif- 
ferent persons or genders, should agree with the first 
person rather than the second or third, and with the 
second person rather than the third, and with the mas- 
culine rather than the feminine : — 

(1) John and I will take our books. 

(2) You and Emily are learning your lesson. 

(3) If any one in this audience dissents, let him rise. 

When the reference is to two or more singular objects, 
the pronoun is plural if they are taken collectively, as 
in (1) and (2) ; but singular if they are taken distribu- 
tively ; as, Every man and boy took off his hat. 

2. A collective noun taken as singular is of neuter gen- 
der ; taken as plural, it requires the plural pronoun : — 

The army honors itself. 

Can Parliament be so dead to its dignity ? 

The clergy began to withdraw themselves. 

In personification, the gender is lawfully changed : — 
The oak shall send his roots abroad and pierce thy mould. 

1 Charles's affairs. — Prescott. Louis's reign. — Macaxday. King James's 
Bible.— G. P. Marsh. 



184 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

3. A pronoun with two or more singular antecedents, 
connected by or or nor must be singular. If one is 
plural, it should be placed last, and the pronoun should 
agree with it : — 

When he shoots a squirrel, a rabbit, or a bird, he gives it away. 
Neither the mother nor her children were aware of their danger. 

The use of the relative that for who or which has been 
mentioned. It should be so used (1) when there are 
two antecedents, one requiring who and the other which; 

(2) after the interrogative ivho, to avoid repetition ; 

(3) after same and the superlative degree : — 

(1) I met the man and the dog that you saw. 

(2) Who that heard his eloquence could resist it ? 

(3) It was the most beautiful day that I had ever known. 

(4) It was the same story that I had read the week before. 

A few examples will suggest the most frequent and 
important errors in the use of the English pronoun : — 

(1) She studied his countenance like an inscription, and de- 
ciphered each rapt expression that crossed it, and stored them [it] 
in her memory. 

(2) Each of the sexes should keep within its particular bounds, 
and content themselves to excel within their respective districts. 

(3) He that pricketh the ear maketh it to show her knowledge. 

(4) Who ever thinks of learning the grammar of their tongue, 
before they are very good grammarians ? 

(5) Every person's happiness depends in part upon the respect 
they meet in the world. 

It may be said that (5) illustrates the preference of the 
plural when both genders are involved. But it seems 
quite as proper that his should be applied to both, as 
that man in a generic sense should include both male 
and female. Doubtless the plural is often used merely 
as a mode of getting out of the difficulty. Sometimes 



SYNTAX. 185 

strictness is sought to be preserved by the use of he or 
she, but this is felt to be cumbersome : — 

The institution of property, reduced to its essential elements, 
consists in the recognition, in each person, of a right to the exclu- 
sive disposal of what he or she has produced by their own exertious. 
— J. S. Mill. 

Rule VII. — An adjective, or its equivalent, modi- 
fies the meaning of a noun expressed or understood ; 

as, These books are beautiful; The dying man made 
his will. 

1. This and that are used with nouns in the singular 
number, and these and those with nouns in the plural 
number. 

Hence the following sentences are incorrect : — 

(1) Those kind of things. 

(2) These kind of sufferings. 

(3) A feeble senate and [an~\ enervated people. 

(4) Blessed be the man that provide th for the sick and [the} 
needy. 

(5) A cherubim. 

(6) A phenomena. 

The omission of the article in (3) and (4) implies but 
a single object of thought, whereas in each there are 
plainly two. A, moreover, if held to be understood, 
Avould not be the proper form to use before enervated. 
In (5) and (6) there is an inconsistency of number, 
the plural instead of the singular — cherub, phenomenon. 
A period of time, however, may be treated as a unit : — 

This many summers on a sea of glory. 

2. The distributives, each, every, either, and neither, 
must be used with singular nouns. 



186 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Rule VIII. — A verb agrees with its subject in 
number and person ; a^, 

I wait. 

He waits. 

Ye stars, which are the poetry of heaven. 

1. Two or more singular subjects connected by and 
require a plural verb ; connected by or or nor, they take 
a verb in the singular : — 

Mars and Jupiter have been visible this week. 
To be or not to be is the question. 
Neither he nor his brother has the book. 

In the application of this rule primary regard must be 
paid to the meaning. It will thus appear that the fol- 
lowing are correct : — 

The scholar and the poet ivas also the Christian and the patriot. 
(Different designations of the same object.) 

Each man, each woman, each child, has a duty to discharge. 
(Compound subject taken distributively. Elliptical usage : Each 
man [has], each woman [has].) 

The wheel and axle ivas out of repair. (The two things named 
make a unit by their combination.) 

Why is dust and ashes proud? (Two words used for one 
meaning.) 

The fleet is under orders to set sail. (Predicate applies to the 
whole mass.) 

A considerable number were induced to quit the body. (Predi- 
cate applies to the individuals of the collection acting separately.) 

The wages of sin is death. (Form plural, but meaning singular : 
The consequence of sin is death.) 

Whether thou or I am in fault. He or they are to be promoted. 
(Virtually contracted co-ordinate sentences ; verb agrees with the 
nearest subject.) 

Violations of the rule often arise from a negligent refer- 



SYNTAX. 187 

ence of the verb to some nearer word that is not the 
real subject : — 

The condition of the crops show that the country has suffered. 

It is observable that each one of the letters bear date after his 
banishment. 

Each of the ladies, like two excellent actresses, were perfect in 
their parts. 

Rule IX. — In the use of irregular verbs the past 
tense should be distinguished from the past parti- 
ciple ; as, — 

The book lies on the shelf : it lay there a week ago, and has lain 
there ever since. 

1. The past participle, unlike the simple past-tense 
form, is used passively and goes with the auxiliaries. 
Ignorance or disregard of this principle accounts for 
such incorrect sentences as : — 

I seen him fall. 

John done it. 

I have did it. 

We have saw Jumbo. 

He had wrote to her. 

He sent a letter wrote on parchment. 

RULE X. — The true sense of a verb-auxiliary should 
harmonize with the idea to be expressed by it. 

1. May is the sign of possibility or permission; can, 
of ability ; and must, of necessity. When mere futurity 
is to be expressed, use shall in the first person, ivill in 
the second and third. When resolve or compulsion is 
to be expressed, the first person requires will; the second 
and third, shall. Thus : — 

r T shall, 
Simple future. <( You will, 
I He will. 



188 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

r I will, 
Resolve or compulsion. { You shall, 
I He shall. 

Rule XI. — The time indicated by the tense-forms 
should harmonize with that indicated by other parts 
of the sentence. 

The following, therefore, are incorrect : — 

(1) I expected to have found [to find] him. 

(2) I should have liked to have seen [to see] him. 

(3) I hoped that you would have [would] come. 

(4) He was [has been] absent this whole week. 

(5) If you are'not careful, you might [may] fall overboard. 

(6) I shall be much gratified if you would [will] favor us with 
your company. 

1. Existing facts and general truths, however, require 
the present tense : — 

He saw that virtue is advantageous. 
He believed that the earth is spherical. 

Rule XII. — In general, parts correspondent or 
alike in thought should be similarly constructed. 

This principle forbids : — 

1. The union of the solemn and ordinary forms : — 

He stoppeth not to consider his ways, and presses on thought- 
lessly to ruin. 

2. The union of auxiliary with simple forms : — 

I always have [been] and always shall be of this opinion. 

Did -he not confess his fault and entreated [entreat] you to for- 
give him ? 

This may serve for almost any book that has [been], is, or shall 
be published. 

Be will not harmonize with have, nor entreated with 
did, nor published (in the passive sense) with has. 



SYNTAX. 189 

3. The union of singular with plural forms: — 

Sparta ! Sparta ! why in slumbers 

Lethargic dost thou lie? 
Awake and join thy numbers 

To Athens, old ally ; 
Leonidas recalling, 

That chief of ancient song, 
Who saved ye once from falling, 

The terrible — the strong. 

4. The union of dissimilar elements by co-ordinate 
connectives : — 

He embraced the cause of liberty faintly, and pursued it without 
resolution [irresolutely] . 

When ignorance is not wilful and sin [sinful]. 

He begged him at the same time carefully to preserve for him 
his Highland garb and accoutrements, particularly the arms, curious 
in themselves, and to which the friendship of the donors gave addi- 
tional value. 

We have in the last example a compound modifier of 
arms. ' Of its two members, the first is a phrase, and 
the second a clause. Both should be phrases, or both 
clauses : which were curious in themselves, or rendered 
additionally valuable by the friendship of the donors. 
Otherwise, the incongruity may be avoided by the omis- 
sion of and. The blunder is very common, especially 
with those who either do not perceive the true relation 
of parts, or fail to regard it. 

5. The useless introduction of new words, and the 
improper union of correlatives: — 

He was just one of those men that [whom] the country can't 
afford to lose, and whom it is so very hard to replace. 

I have amused myself prophesying, as we drove into town, how 
this ugly lot of suburbs would join with that ugly lot, and that 
there would soon be one continuous street. 



190 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Natural language, neither bookish nor vulgar, neither redolent 
of the lamp or of the kennel. 

He neither knew the manner in which, or the place where, his 
journey might be next interrupted by his invisible attendant. 

The error in the last two is double : neither should be 
put directly before the element upon which it throws 
its force, — the adjunct in the one case, the object in 
the other; and its only admissible correlative is nor. 

It may be proper, at this point, to notice the prev- 
alent confusion in the use of or and nor in a nega- 
tive sentence. It is sometimes difficult to determine 
which word should be used to continue a negative 
sense after a preceding negative. Length of parts or 
emphasis of distinction would seem to give the prefer- 
ence to nor : — 

The king has no arbitrary power to give him ; your Lordships 
have not; nor the Commons; nor the whole Legislature. — Burke. 

Yet Paul did not waste all his hours in this idle vaporing, nor 
in the pleasures of the table. — Prescott. 

I can not tell which way his Majesty went, nor whether there 
is any one with him. — Fielding. 

Or may be preferable, or even necessary, if the parts 
are plainly affected by the preceding negative, if they 
are not emphatically distinguished, or if they are short 
and closely connected : — 

He was certainly not very reverent in his conduct or in his 
writings. — Dean Alford. 

No tie of gratitude or of honor could bind him. — Macaulay. 

This was not to be ascribed chiefly or solely to political ani- 
mosity. — Ibid. 

So long as they did not meddle with politics or religion. — 
Prescott. 

Rule XIII. — The object of a transitive verb or 



SYNTAX. 191 

a transitive participle or of a preposition is in the 
objective case; as : — 

Who fed me from her gentle breast, 
And hushed me in her arms to rest, 
And on my cheeks sweet kisses pressed? 
Having finished the lesson, she went home. 

1. This rule appears in pronouns only. It is not 
likely to be violated except when the object is at a dis- 
tance from the governing word : — 

Thou, Nature, partial Nature, I arraign. 

Who should I meet the other day but my old friend? 

Who did you get that book from ? 

2. The case of the indirect object, formerly distin- 
guished by a dative ending, might better be called 
dative-objective : — 

I made him a coat \_— made a coat for him]. 
They paid him his wages [— paid wages to him]. 
Forgive us our debts [ = forgive to us] . 
She asked him his name [= asked of him]. 

The preposition, though it may be used to bring out 
the dative relation, is not (if unexpressed) to be con- 
sidered left out, any more than of is to be understood 
in CrooVs love — love of God. 

3. When a noun in the objective case, denoting time, 
measure, distance, value, etc., is used with a verb or an 
adjective, the preposition is not expressed ; as, The 
well is ten feet deep ; They live near the mill ; It is 
worth a dollar. 

Rule XIV. — The subject of the root infinitive is 
in the objective case. 1 

1 The subject of the infinitive may be regarded, conventionally, as the 
object of the principal verb. Logically it is but a part — the base — of the 
complete object. (See Whitney 's Essentials of English Grammar, p. 217.) 



192 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

I saw him go. 

Let us rise. 

For me to act thus is base ingratitude. 

Not — 

Let he who made thee [to] answer that. 

1. When the subject of the infinitive coincides with 
that of the sentence, the case is nominative ; as, He was 
seen to depart. 

2. The infinitive may be used as the object of a transi- 
tive verb ; as, He likes to study his lesson. 

3. The infinitive maybe used as the object of a prepo- 
sition ; as, They are about to go. 

Rule XV. — Adverbs modify verbs, participles, 
adjectives, and other adverbs ; as, He writes beauti- 
fully ; The man came, running swiftly ; The road was 
very dry and dusty ; Charles walked very rapidly over 
the bridge. 

1. The adverbs yes, no, amen, truly, etc., modify entire 
propositions. In the following constructions, the adverbs 
no and yes are equivalent to complete answers to the 
questions : Did you go ? No. Will he recite ? Yes. 

Rule XVI. — Conjunctions connect words, phrases, 
clauses, and sentences. 

Rule XVII. — Interjections are independent in 
construction. 



1 There being no antecedent term of relation, we prefer to regard the 
preposition in snch constructions as without governing power, having a 
merely introductory function. The omission of for gives the Latin idiom : 
Facinus est vinciri civum Romanum [A Roman citizen to be bound (That 
a Roman citizen should be bound, For a Roman citizen to be bound) is a 
crime]. — Cicero. 



SYNTAX. 193 

THE ORDER OF THE WORDS IN SENTENCES. 

Much freedom in the order of words is permitted by 
an inflected language, because the words, wherever 
placed, show their mutual relations by their forms. In 
English, however, position is almost the only thing that 
shows the connection of parts, and the study of arrange- 
ment becomes, therefore, of great importance to all who 
would write or speak to the best advantage. 

Dr. Alexander Bain gives the following principles as 
the basis for the construction of sentences : — 

1. What is to be thought of first is to be men- 
tioned first. 

2. Things to be thought of together should be 
placed in close connection. 

RULES OF ORDER. 

1. The usual order puts the adjective before the 
noun, the subject before the verb, and the verb 
before its objective or adverbial modifier. 

(1) Every man's task is his life-preserver. 

(2) The man found the dog. 

(3) James ran slowly up the hill. 

2. Just as unusual sights and sounds are apt to 
impress us more powerfully than those with which 
we are familiar, so a thought may be rendered more 
striking by using words out of their customary place 
— that is, by transposition, or inversion. 

(1) Here lies the road to Rome. 

(2) Then shook the hills, with thunder riven. 

(3) What a piece of work is man ! 

(4) Is life so dear or peace so sweet as to be purchased at the 
price of chains and slavery? 



194 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

1. The inversion is very often accomplished by com- 
mencing with an adverb, as in (1) and (2). The pro- 
noun it is frequently employed for this purpose. 

It is upon record that a battle between two armies was once 
broken off by an earthquake. 

The commonest example is the case of there : — 

There lies upon the other side of the wide Atlantic a beautiful 
island, famous in story and in song. 

In (4) the transposition breaks up routine, arrests 
attention, and demands a reply. 

2. The subject is also thrown out of its usual posi- 
tion when the conjunction is suppressed in conditional 
clauses, and when neither or nor, signifying and not, is 
put before the verb : — 

Were I in his place, I should resign. 

This was his fear, nor was the apprehension groundless. 

3. Clearness requires that modifiers should be as 
near as possible to the parts modified. 

(1) Wanted. — A young man to take charge of a pair of horses, 
of a religious turn of mind. 

(2) We have two school houses sufficiently large to accommodate 
four hundred pupils, three stories high. 

(3) A child was run over by a heavy wagon, four years old, 
wearing a short pink dress and bronze boots, whose parents are not yet 

. found. 

The remedy for (1) and (2) is obvious — transposition 
of the italicized modifiers. There is no sufficient 
remedy for (3) but to resolve it into separate state- 
ments. Wrong arrangement leads, in general, either 
to a wrong sense, as above, or to a doubtful one. Other 
and common instances of the first are : — 

(1) It is only to occur three times. [. . . three times only.~\ 



SYNTAX. 195 

(2) It is said this can only be filled in thus. [. . . filled in only 
thus.] 

(3) Which can only be decided when those circumstances are 
known. [. . . only when.] 

(4) The first could be only imputed to the just indignation of 
the gods. 

(5) One species of bread, of coarse quality, was only allowed to 
be baked. 

(6) By greatness, I do not only mean [mean not only] the bulk 
of any single object, but the largeness of a whole view. 

(7) The distinction is observed in French, but never appears 
[never] to have been made. 

(8) In all abstract cases where we merely speak of numbers the 
verb is better singular. 

(9) The beaux of that day used the abominable art of painting 
their faces, as well as the women. 

(10) It is the repetition of the period in somewhat a different 
form. 

Adverbs have been likened to sauces, which must be 
taken only with those dishes that they are designed to 
accompany. Note the difference between i" washed 
only my hands and I only washed my hands. 

Especial care must be bestowed on either . . . or, 
neither . . . nor. Improperly placed they produce an 
ill-balanced effect, like a pair of crookedly-hung pict- 
ures : — 

(1) He was neither fitted by abilities nor disposition to answer 
the wishes of his mother and sister. 

(2) He is neither disposed to sanction bloodshed nor deceit. 

(3) I am neither an ascetic in theory or in practice. 

In this connection one point remains to be considered. 
Shall we say the three first or the first three? If we 
adopt the former order, it is asked, " How can three be 
first?" If the latter, it seems to be implied that there 
is a second three, a third three, and so on. Difficulties 



196 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

attach to both forms, but both are proper and are used 
by the best writers. 1 

4. Every pronoun should have a distinct reference. 

Obscurity of reference may be avoided sometimes by 
changing the order, sometimes by changing the number 
of one of the antecedents, sometimes by substituting 
the direct for the indirect narrative : 2 — 

(1) The fruit was in glass cans ivJiich we ate. 

(2) The barons were summoned by their kings when they were 
compelled by their wants or their fears to have recourse to their 
aid. 

(3) The farmer went to his neighbor, and told him that his 
cattle were in his field. 

Better : — 

(1) The fruit which we ate was in glass cans. 

(2) The barons were summoned by their king when he was 
compelled by his wants or his fears to have recourse to their aid. 

(3) The farmer went to his neighbor, and said, " Your cattle 
are in my field." 

5. Energy is gained by a gradual ascent of thought 
and expression. This is called Climax. 3 

(1) Are they Hebrews? So am I. Are they Israelites? So am 
I. Are they ministers of Christ? I am more. 

(2) The stream of literature has swollen into a torrent — aug- 
mented into a river — expanded into a sea. 

That order of words, therefore, will always be most 
agreeable, where, without obscuring the sense, the 

1 Both are correct, but for different concepts. The first three expresses 
the fact that a series of consecutive numbers are arranged in groups of 
three each, of which the first group is taken ; the three first expresses that 
there are three consecutive series, of which the first co-ordinate numbers 
are taken. 

2 The direct form gives the thought of another in his own words ; the 
indirect gives his thought only, not the words. [See pp. 20, 215.] 

3 Greek klimax, a ladder, or staircase. 



SYNTAX. 197 

most important ideas, the longest members, and the 
most sonorous words bring up the rear. The following 
can be improved : — 

(1) A room comfortable and large. 

(2) It is great to labor, to suffer, to live, for great public ends. 

(3) Men of the best sense have been touched, more or less, with 
these groundless horrors and presages of futurity, upon surveying 
the most indifferent works of nature. 

Better : — 

(1) A room large and comfortable. 

(2) It is great to live, to labor, to suffer, for great public ends. 

(3) Men of the best sense have, upon surveying the most indif- 
ferent works of nature, been touched more or less with these 
groundless horrors and presages of futurity. 

The practice of throwing the preposition to the end 
of the sentence is of Saxon origin : — 

The ills that flesh is heir to. — Shakespeare. 

Houses are built to live in, and not to look on. — Bacon. 

Hath God a name to curse by? — Donne. 

To find some obscure retreat to die in. — Prescott. 

A force of cultivated opinions for him to appeal to. — Arnold. 

This construction is especially adapted to familiar 
discourse. To transpose the preposition will render 
the expression more stately, but will often weaken it. 

6. Emphatic words should he placed in emphatic 
positions, — for the most part, at the heginning or 
at the end of the sentence. 

While the beginning, as the first to strike the atten- 
tion, is emphatic, the end, as a rule, is more so ; for at 
the latter point there is an unwonted pause, the mind 
is detained, and consequently an important idea here 
cannot but make the deeper impression : — 

(1) On whatever side we contemplate Homer, what principally 
strikes us is his wonderful invention. 



198 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

(2) Lord help you, sir, they are not angry with one another; 
they have no cause of quarrel, but their country thinks that there 
should be a, pause. 

Hence, to emphasize the grammatical subject unusually, 
it must be removed from its usual place. This is true 
likewise of the grammatical predicate : — 

(1) Blessed are the peace-makers. 

(2) Sad and weary was the march to Valley Forge. 

(3) Louder and louder the deep thunder rolled, as through the 
myriad halls of some vast temple in the sky ; fiercer and brighter 
became the lightning, more and more heavily the rain poured down. 

It will be seen that the effect is here enhanced by the 
novelty of inversion. 

The strength of the following sentence consists 
largely in the stress which the predicate position gives 
to modifiers : — 

A question so abrupt, upon a subject so momentous, requires 
consideration. 

7. Avoid placing* an adverb between to and the 
infinitive ; as in, to really know the man. 

EXERCISES. 

Some of the following are correct, some are incorrect, some 
violate government and concord, some violate order. Apply the 
preceding principles to the justification of the correct and the cor- 
rection of such as are faulty. 

1. He wrote an history. 

2. These sort of pens are good. 

3. Them's my sentiments. 

4. Will I be there in time ? 

5. If you will call, I shall be happy to receive you. 

6. It was requested that no person would leave the room. 

7. I shall never see him again. 

8. I will never see him again. 

9. I will be drowned; nobody shall help me. 



SYNTAX. 199 

10. What a awful accident ! 

11. He owned an old and new house. 

12. He drove a horse and ox. 

13. When will we go ? 

14. I would not have dared done it. 

15. This is very easy done. 

16. Not only he found her employed, but pleased and tranquil. 

17. It is impossible continually to be at work. 

18. The same laws obtain through the whole system, most prob- 

ably, in which we are counted. 

19. I have considered the subject with a good deal of attention, 

upon which I was desired to communicate my thoughts. 

20. He seldom or ever come here. 

21. Nothing which is not right can be great; nothing can be 

suitable to the dignity of the human mind which reason 
condemns. 

22. No man ever bestowed such a gift to his kind. 

23. Was it her ? 

24. It is not from this w T orld that any source of comfort can arise 

to cheer the gloom of the last hour. 

25. The building the house is going on. 

26. Much depends on this rule being observed. 

27. Both Cato and Cicero loved their country. 

28. Every person is the architect of their own fortune. 

29. If either Nellie or Mamie is absent from her seat at nine to- 

morrow, she will be kept in. 

30. It is ordained by Providence that nothing shall be obtained 

in our present state that is truly valuable, except it be with 
difficulty and danger. 

31. We cannot doubt but all the proceedings of Providence will 

appear as equitable, when fully understood and completely 
intelligible, as now they seem irregular. 

32. He offered an apology, which being not admitted, he became 

submissive. 

33. She suffers more than me. 

31. My father allowed my brother and I to accompany him. 

35. I knew it to be he. 

36. The good man not only deserves the respect but the love of 

his fellow-beings. 



200 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

37. Let him be who he may. 

38. He saw a red, white, and blue flag. 

39. He saw a red, a white, and a blue flag. 

40. To a great and almost indefinite extent. 

41. The oral or written forms of a language. 

42. I'd rather no't go. 

43. Of all other vices, lying is the meanest. 

44. Do you remember who he was ? 

45. The society of these places are always changing. 

46. Economy, not mean savings, bring wealth. 

47. We should carefully examine into, and candidly pass judg- 

ment on, our faults. 

48. The nobility were present. 

49. Not a drum, not a funeral note was heard. 

50. Gentlemen are not requested to enter the ladies' cabin without 

permission. 

51. They supposed it was T. 

52. The dog's ear was cut off. 

53. All that glitters is not gold. 

54. Whom did you send the letter to ? 

55. Was John and James' confession alike ? 

56. Let my soul live, and it shall praise thee. 

57. Let the House of Commons be warned — let it warn itself. 

58. The jury were dismissed. 

59. The council has chosen its president. 

60. Either he or I is right. 

61. Was I so disposed, I could not gratify you. 

62. Though he slay me, yet will 1 trust in him'. 

63. Go and. lay down. 

64. She come very soon after you had went away. 

Go. The committee would further suggest some change in the 
internal arrangement of the building, as a large number of 
seats have long been occupied by the scholars that have no 
backs. 

66. Solomon, the son of David, who built the temple at Jerusalem, 

was the richest monarch of his age. 

67. It appears that there are, by a late calculation, nearly twenty- 

five millions of inhabitants in Great Britain and Ireland. 

68. I had rode a short distance when the storm began to gather. 



SYNTAX. 201 

69. The possession of Jacob Torson's, the publisher, heir. 

70. He run till he was forced to lay down. 

71. I remember when it was laid. 

72. Between you and I, he is losing his mind. 

73. They that are diligent, I will reward. 

74. Not one in a thousand could have done so well as he. 

75. The North and South Pole. 

76. She has less friends than I. 

77. It is now five days since you have arrived. 

78. Whom are you looking for ? 

79. The ends of a divine and human legislation are very different. 

80. Neither can we admit that he was formed by himself without 

the greatest absurdity, or by mere accident. 

81. Having not known or having not considered the subject, he 

declined expressing any opinion. 

82. Under all its labors, hope is the mind's solace ; and the situa- 

tions which exclude it entirely are few. 

83. She also befooled me for, as she called it, my intended desper- 

ate adventure. 
81. The ebb and flow of tides were explained by Newton. 

85. These flowers smell very sweetly and look beautifully. 

86. Have you no other reason but this ? 

87. Here come my old friend and teacher. 

88. I never have nor ever will forget it. 

89. The spirit, and not the letter of the law, are what we ought to 

follow. 

90. She walked with the lamp across the room still burning. 

91. Did you expect to have heard it? 

92. They told me of his having failed. 

93. The building must be either a church or a school. 

94. Either you or I are to blame. 

95. The man, together with those who accompanied him, were 

killed. 

96. When will we three meet again ? 

97. He taught that the soul was immortal. 

98. The great historian and the essayist has passed aw T ay. 
99.. The books were lain upon the table. 

100. Every tub must stand upon their own bottom. 

101. I am afraid of the man dying before a doctor can come. 



202 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

102. The rise and fall of nations are an interesting study. 

103. More than four-fifths of the property belongs to Protes- 

tants. 

104. He showed me two kinds, but I did not buy any of them. 

105. His honorable and amiable disposition were much praised. 

106. If we could only hold our tongues, everything will succeed. 

107. We would be greatly mistaken, if we suppose wealth and 

rank exempt from care and toil. 

108. A great stone that I happened to find after a long search by 

the sea-shore, served me for an anchor. 

109. Oswald not only communicated a copy of his commission but 

a part of his instructions and a letter from the Secretary 
of State. 

110. Nor does this false modesty expose us only to such actions as 

are indiscreet. 

111. The knight, seeing his habitation reduced to so small a com- 

pass, and himself in a manner shut out of his own house, 
upon the death of his mother, ordered all the apartments 
to be flung open. 

112. The fact of me going away was of no consequence. 

113. It did him no more good than his afterward trying to pacify 

the barons with lies. 

114. Nor heaven nor earth have been at peace to-night. 

115. Rapt into future times the bard begun. 

116. If I stretch a catgut or any other cord between my fingers, I 

will make it smaller. 

117. When I hear a person use a queer expression, or pronounce 

a name in reading differently from his neighbors. 

118. The smooth monotony of the leading religious topics, as 

managed by the French orators, under the treatment of 
Jeremy Taylor, receives at each turn of the sentence a new 
flexure. 

119. I remember when the French band of the " Guides " were in 

this country, reading in the " Illustrated News." 

120. Two young men have discovered that there was no God. 

121. Every one must be the judge of their own feelings. 

122. He left the room very slowly repeating his determination not 

to obey. 

123. No mightier than thyself or me. 



SYNTAX. 203 

124. Sorrow not as them that have no hope. 

125. Hence the despotic state will be generally successful, if a 

contest occurs, in the outset. 

126. She was neither better bred nor wiser than you or me. 

127. Neither of which are taken into account. 

128. The fact of such an objection having been made. 

129. It was expected that his first act would have been to have 

sent for Lords Grey and Grenville. 

130. The reason is perspicuous why no French plays when trans- 

lated have, or ever can, succeed on the English stage. 

131. One species of bread, of coarse quality, was only allowed to 

be baked. 

132. I have now and then inserted in the text, characters of books 

that I have not read, on the faith of my guides. 

133. Wolsey left at his death many buildings which he had begun, 

in an unfinished state, and which no one expects to see 
complete. 

134. Both minister and magistrate is compelled to choose between 

his duty and his reputation. 

135. The Moor, seizing a bolster, full of rage and jealousy, 

smothers her. 

136. The richness of her arms and apparel were conspicuous in 

the foremost rank. 

137. Sir Morton Peto spoke of the notion that the national debt 

might be repudiated with absolute contempt. 

138. And now the years a numerous train have ran. 

139. Ethics, with atheism, are impossible. 

140. The camp was almost immediately broke up. 

141. Without having attended to this, we will be at a loss to 

understand several passages. 

142. A few months before, he was willing to have hazarded all the 

horrors of civil war. 

143. People have been crying out that Germany never could be an 

aggressive power a great deal too soon. 

144. A constable will neither act cheerfully or wisely. 

145. An unquestioned man of genius. 

146. The literature of France, Germany, and England are at least 

as necessary for a man born in the nineteenth century as 
that of Rome and Athens. 



204 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

147. Concerning some of them, little more than the names are to 

be learned from literary history. 

148. Sir Thomas More in general so writes it, although not many 

others so late as him. 

149. Homer, as well as Virgil, were transcribed and studied on the 

banks of the Rhine and Danube. 

150. America, as well as Europe, has received letters from the one 

and religion from the other. 

151. Every one of this grotesque family were the creatures of 

national genius. 

152. The style is uncouth and hard ; but with great defects of style, 

which should be the source of perpetual delight, no long 
poem will be read. 

153. I shall have a comedy for you, in a season or two at farthest, 

that I believe will be worth your acceptance. 

154. He blew out his brains after bidding his wife good-bye with 

a gun. 

155. A piano for sale by lady about to cross the Channel in an oak 

case with carved legs. 

156. Those whose profession or whose reputation regulate public 

opinion. 

157. Everything that painting, music, and even place furnish, were 

called in to interest the audience. 

158. The master who is essentially a crammer cannot be prevented 

from continuing to cram by any power on earth. 

159. Few, if any town or village in the south of England, has a 

name ending in by. 

160. They followed the advance of the courageous party, step by 

step, through telescopes. 

161. At least I am resolved that the country shall see who it has 

to thank for whatever may happen. 

162. Few people learn anything that is worth learning easily. 

163. The hardship is that in these times one can neither speak of 

kings or queens without suspicion of politics or personali- 
ties. 

164. It is not necessary, in such conversation, to accurately define 

the meaning of everything that is said. 

165. Climbing to the top of the hill, the Atlantic ocean was 

seen. 



INTERJECTIONS CLASSIFIED. 205 



PARSING. 

To give a complete account of a word as it stands in 
the sentence with which it is connected, is to parse it. 

Parsing [from pars, a part] is, literally, naming the 
part of speech to which a word belongs ; but in the 
present sense of the term it means naming all the gram- 
matical points of a word. 

This account includes (1) the classification of the 
word ; (2) the modifications — that is, its inflectional 
forms, number, case, gender, person, tense, mode, voice, 
or degree ; (3) its function, relation, or construction 
— that is, the duty it does, the part it plays, in build- 
ing up or constructing the sentence into which it enters. 

The following will serve as a guide in parsing each 
part of speech. After the pupil shall have acquired a 
good degree of skill, the description may be shortened. 

(Examples for parsing may be found in preceding 
exercises.) 

1. To parse a noun : — 

1. A noun. Why ? 

2. The class. Why? 

3. Person. Why? 

4. Gender. Why? 

5. Number. Why? 

6. Case. Why? Rule. 

7. Its use in the sentence. Why? 

2. To parse a pronoun : — 

1. A pronoun. Why? 

2. The class. Why? 

3. Person. Why? 

4. Gender. Why? 

5. Number. Why? 

6. Case. Why? Rule. 

7. Its use in the sentence. Why? 



206 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

3. To parse an adjective : — 

1. An adjective. Why? 

2. Class. Why? 

3. Compare (if qualifying). 

4. What it modifies ? Why ? Rule. 

5. Its use in the sentence. Why? 

4» To parse a verb : — 

1. A verb. Why ? 

2. Principal parts. 

3. Regular or irregular. Why? 

4. Transitive or intransitive. Why? 

5. Mode. Why? 

6. Tense. Why? 

7. Voice. Why? 

8. Inflect. 

9. Person and number. Why? Rule. 
10. Its use in the sentence. Why? 

5. To parse an adverb : — 

1. An adverb. Why? 

2. Compare. 

3. What is modified? Why? Rule. 

4. Its use in the sentence. Why ? 

6- To parse a preposition : — 

1. A preposition. Why? Rule. 

2. Its use in the phrase or sentence. To connect what? 

7. To parse a conjunction : — 

1. A conjunction. Why? 

2. Class. Why? Rule. 

3. Its use in the sentence or phrase. To connect what? 

8. To parse an interjection : — ■ 

1. An interjection. Why? 

2. Its use. Why? Rule. 



PUNCTUATION. 207 



CHAPTER XIII. 
Punctuation. 

Sentences are made clear chiefly by a proper arrange- 
ment of words ; but sometimes, in spoken language, by 
proper pauses, and in written language by proper punc- 
tuation. Marks used for this purpose are called, from 
their effect, stops; and from their appearance, points, 
the Latin for which is punctum. 

Thus : — 

1. The troops landed and killed a hundred Indians. 

Here Indians has the appearance of being the common 
object of the two verbs. To restrict it to the second, 
a point must be inserted after the first : — 

The troops landed, and killed a hundred Indians. 

It would be still better, however, to re-cast the sen- 
tence, changing the first member to The troops, landing, 
hilled, etc., or After the troops had landed. 

2. A tree consists of four parts first leaves second branches 
third trunk fourth roots. 

Here the least degree of separation is after the ordinals, 
which have been introduced to make the enumeration 
more deliberate or formal ; and hence these are cut off 
by commas, to show that they are not modifiers. The 
next higher degree is between the particulars enumer- 
ated ; hence these require semicolons. The highest is 



208 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

after parts, and must therefore be distinguished by a 
colon : — 

A tree consists of four parts : first, leaves ; second, branches ; 
third, trunk; fourth, roots. 

3. Said Keats, "I feel the daisies growing over me." 

The grammatical connection between the object and the 
verb is closer when the sentence assumes the form : — 
Keats said that he felt the daisies growing over him. 

A formal reference to the quotation increases the sepa- 
ration : — 

These are the words of the dying Keats : " I feel the daisies 
growing over me." 

In the first form, the quotation is objective and direct ; 
in the second, it is objective and indirect ; and in the 
third, it is nominative by apposition. Make the apposi- 
tive intermediate between subject and verb, and the 
punctuation will vary accordingly : — 

These words, " I feel the daisies growing over me," were spoken 
by the dying Keats. 

From these illustrations we learn that the purpose of 
punctuation is to indicate to the eye the construction of 
the sentence ; also, that punctuation is influenced by 
the sense, by position, and by the points required else- 
where. 

PERIOD. 

Place a period after (1) a declarative or an impera- 
tive sentence ; (2) an abbreviation ; (3) headings and 
sub-headings, significant alone ; (4) Roman letters used 
as numerals. The practice of (4), however, is losing 
favor. It is more tasteful and equally clear to omit the 
period ; as, Edward IV was a vigorous ruler. 






PUNCTUATION. 209 

INTERROGATION POINT. 

This point is used after complete questions, whether 
asked by the writer or directly quoted (<x, 6) ; some- 
times within curves, to express doubt without formal 
denial (e) ; after elliptical questions having a common 
dependence (d) : — 

(a) What can I do for you? 

(b) He asked, " Why do you weep ? " 

(c) He is the meanest (?) of mankind. 

(d) How shall a man obtain the kingdom of God? by impiety? 

by murder ? by falsehood ? by theft ? . 

EXCLAMATION POINT. 

This point is used after sentences and parts of sen- 
tences that are sufficiently emotional (a, #, c) ; com- 
monly after interjections Qd, g, /) ; sometimes to attract 
attention (#) ; within curves, to denote irony or con- 
tempt (li) : — 

(a) How poor, how rich, how abject, how august, how complicate, 

how wonderful is man ! 

(b) Here I stand for impeachment or trial ! I dare accusation ! 

(c) Those evening bells ! those evening bells ! 
How many a tale their music tells ! 

(d) Yeho ! yeho ! through lanes, groves, and villages. 

(e) Ah ! there's a deathless name. 

(/) Ere I was old ? Ah ! woeful " ere " ! 
(g) Selling off below cost ! ! 

(h) This scholar and statesman (!) would have us think that the 
law should be repealed. 

COLON. 

A colon is put between the great divisions of a com- 
pound sentence, when minor divisions are marked by 
the semicolon (a) ; before an enumeration of particu- 



210 ENGLISH GBAMMAB. 

lars when the particulars themselves are separated by 
semicolons (h) ; before a direct quotation formally 
introduced (e ; but note d} : — 

(a) There seems to have been an Indian path ; for this was the 

ordinary route of the Mohawk and Oneida war-parties : 
but the path was narrow, broken, full of gullies and pit- 
falls, crossed by streams, and, in one place, interrupted by 
a lake which they passed on rafts. 

(b) In the language of commerce, money has two meanings : cur- 

rency, or the circulating medium ; and, capital seeking invest- 
ment, especially investment on loan. 

(c) These are Bion's words : " Know thyself." 

(d) These words, " Know thyself," were spoken by Bion. 

SEMICOLON. 

A semicolon is put between the great divisions of a 
sentence if the minor divisions require to be marked by 
commas (a, 5) ; between co-ordinate members when a 
comma would not seem to give due weight to the 
thought (<?) ; between serial clauses or phrases having 
a common dependence (6?) ; often before as preceding 
an illustrative example (e ; but note /, g, K) ; before 
an informal enumeration of particulars, if the partic- 
ulars themselves require to be separated by commas 
only 0*): — 

(a) That the world is overrun with vice, cannot be denied ; but 

vice, however predominant, has not yet gained unlimited 
dominion. 

(b) A great author . . . writes passionately because he feels keenly ; 

forcibly, because he conceives vividly. 

(c) We have carved a cross upon our altars; bat the smoke of 

our sacrifice goes up to Thor and Odin still. 

(d) As a traveler, Smith had roamed over France ; had visited 

the shores of Egypt; had returned to Italy; and, panting 
for glory, had sought the borders of Hungary, where had 



PUNCTUATION. 211 

long existed a hereditary warfare with the followers of 
Mahomet. 

(e) Can signifies ability ; as, I can read. 

(f) Many words, as inquire, enquire, sceptic, are differently spelled 

in English. 

(g) Many words are differently spelled in English : inquire, en- 

quire ; jail, gaol ; sceptic, skeptic. 
(Ji) Some words are irregularly compared ; as, good, better, best, 
(i) There are three genders ; the masculine, the feminine, and 

the neuter. 



COMMA. 

The comma is used to mark independent elements 
(a ; but note J) ; inverted elements (<? ; but note cT) ; 
appositional elements (e ; but note /) ; elliptical ele- 
ments (cf) ; contrasted elements (Ji) ; direct quotations, 
if short and informal or if intermediate (£) ; the logical 
subject if very long, if ending in a verb, or if composed 
of a series of unconnected terms (j); short members 
of a compound sentence (k) ; parenthetical and inter- 
mediate elements (7, m). In general, use a comma 
whenever it serves to prevent obscurity (ri). No 
comma, as a rule, is put between restrictive elements 
and that which they restrict (o ; but note p) : — 

(a) Mark A nthony, here, take your Caesar's body. 

I think, regard Mm as you may, that he is a dangerous man. 

(b) I wish — oh! ivhy should 1 not have wished? — that all my 

fellow-men possessed the blessings of a benign civilization. 
Consider (and may the consideration sink deep into your 
hearts /) the fatal consequences of a wicked life. 

(c) Of all our senses, sight is the most perfect. 
. If it rain, I will go. 

To the wise and good, old age is tranquil. 

(d) Her crystal lamp the evening star has lighted. 
In infancy the mind is peculiarly ductile. 



212 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

In trie solemn stillness of the mind are formed the resolutions 
that decide our fate, 
(e) The twin sisters, piety and poetry, are wont to dwell together. 
A professed Catholic, he imprisoned the pope. He, a professed 

Catholic, imprisoned the pope. 
Noah Porter, LL.D. 
(/) The terms reason and instinct have been variously defined. 

I recommend the reading of good books as a source of improve- 
ment and delight. 
(g) The tendency of poetry is to refine, purify, and expand. 
Charity beareth, believeth, hopeth, all things. 
A wise man seeks to shine in himself; a fool, to outshine 
others. , 
(h) False delicacy is affectation, not politeness. Prudence, as well 

as courage, is necessary to overcome obstacles. 
(i) It hurts a man's pride to say, "I do not know." To say, "I 

do not know," hurts a man's pride. 
0) Whatever is, is right. To maintain a steady course amid all 
the adversities oj life, marks a great mind. Intelligence, 
beauty, modesty, are the charms of woman. 
(k) There mountains rise, and circling oceans flow. 
(7) I dislike all misery, voluntary or involuntary. Man, who is 
born of woman, is of few days. 
Behold the emblem of thy state in flowers, which bloom and die. 
(in) Benevolence, on whatever side we contemplate it, is a godlike 

virtue. 
(n) He who teaches, often learns. 
To each, honor is given. 

That is, there is a true way of expressing truth. The gleam 
of the ocean and vast prairies of verdure, were before us. 
(o) Ambition is the germ from which all growth of nobleness 
proceeds. 
There is no such partition in the spiritual world as you see 

in the material. 
He said that he would go. 
(p) Seneca says, " There is a settled friendship between God and 
good men." 
There are many dreams, fictions, or theories, which men substi- 
tute for truth. 



PUNCTUATION. 213 

Rule (c) is not applicable if the extreme terms are 
closely connected, as in (c?) ; if the order of the entire 
sentence is inverted ; or if a short inverted phrase can 
be read smoothly without obscurity. The object com- 
plement in (j?), though restrictive, is set off in the 
service of the eye. The relative clause, though restric- 
tive, is preceded by a comma to show its equal reference 
to each of the three antecedents. 

DASH. 

A dash is used to indicate an unfinished construction 
(a) ; a witty transition (6) ; hesitation (<?) ; with the 
comma, after a loose series of nominatives broken off 
and resumed in a new form QdT) ; before what is repeated 
for effect (e) ; in preference to commas and curves, to 
enclose a parenthesis (/) ; as a thought-stioke (#) ; to 
show the omission of letters and figures (Ji) : — 

(a) Richter says, in the island of Sumatra there is a large firefly 

which people stick upon spits to illuminate the ways at 
night. . . . Great honor to the fireflies ! But ! 

(b) She never slumbered in her pew — but when she shut her eyes. 

(c) I take — eh ! oh ! — as much exercise as I can, Madam Gout. 

(d) To pull down the false and to build up the true, and to uphold 

what there is of true in the old, — let this be our endeavor. 

(e) Never is virtue left without sympathy — sympathy dearer 

and tenderer for the misfortune that has tried it, and 

proved its fidelity. 
(/) Tn youth — somewhere between childhood and manhood — 

there is commonly a striking development of the imagination. 
(g) He suffered — but his pangs are o'er ; 

Enjoyed — but his delights are fled; 
Had friends — his friends are now no more ; 

And foes — his foes are dead. 

(h) In the village of C lived a queer old woman. 

During the war period, 1861-5, gold rapidly advanced. 



214 ENGLISH GRAMMA B. 

CURVES. 

The curves are used to enclose independent elements 
that violently break the unity of the context (a) ; de- 
pendent elements, if desired to be read in a perceptible 
undertone (J). Matter within the curves is punctuated 
as in any other position (c) : — 

(a) The labors of Sir William Jones (he was master of twenty- 

eight languages) were the wonder and admiration of his 
contemporaries. 

(b) Know then this truth (enough for man to know) : 
Virtue alone is happiness below. 

It behooves 1 me to say that these three (who, by the way, are 

all dead) possessed great ability. 
I devoted a third part of all my wealth (four cents) to this 

cause. 
I agree with the honorable gentleman (Mr. Allen) that it is 

very pleasing. 

(c) Perhaps (for who can guess the effects of chance?) 
Here Hunt may box, or Mahomet may dance. 

If we exercise right principles (and we cannot have them 
unless we exercise them), they must be perpetually on the 
increase. 

The curves are used very often, as throughout this 
work, to enclose figures, letters, and words, inserted for 
explanation or for reference. 

Within the sentence, the curve supersedes both 
comma and period. Whatever point would be needed 
if the parenthesis were left out, must be retained and 
will be inserted after the second curve. 

BRACKETS. 

The brackets are used to enclose what one person puts 
into the writing of another (a) ; by lexicographers, to 
enclose references, derivations, pronunciations (J) : — 



PUNCTUATION. 215 

(a) Chelsea, June 30 [1880] Omission. 

A variety of pleasing objects meet [meets] the 

eye Correction. 

Yours [the British] is a nation of unbounded 

resources Explanation. 

(b) Elude [Latin eludo~] v. t., to escape. 

Formerly they were used in dramatic compositions to 
enclose directions or observations not considered a part 
of the text. In this use, however, they have been 
almost superseded by the curves. 



QUOTATION MARKS. 

Quotation marks are used to enclose the identical 
language of another (a) ; a quotation included within 
another is distinguished by single points (5). The 
quotation retains its own punctuation (c) : — 

(a) " Leaves have their time to fall, 

And flowers to wither at the north wind's breath, 

And stars to set ; but all — 
Thou hast all seasons for thine own, O Death." 

(b) " Swift to the breach his comrades fly, — 

* Make way for liberty ! ' they cry, 

And through the Austrian phalanx dart, 

As rushed the spear through Arnold's heart." 

(c) He asked me, " Why do you weep ? " 

Why did you not say at once, " I cannot go "? 

The interrogation point belongs, in the latter, to the 
entire sentence ; in the former, only to the objective 
clause. 

It should be remembered, also, that quotation marks 
are but one of several devices for distinguishing words 
that are quoted. Hence single terms, titles of books 
and periodicals, may be expressed in italic or capitals. 



216 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

UNDERSCORE. 

The underscore is used to distinguish foreign words 
(a) ; usually names of newspapers, of magazines, and 
(less frequently) of books (7>) ; often for emphasis (<?), 
— one underscore denoting what is emphatic, italics; 
two, what is more emphatic, small capitals; three, 
what is very emphatic, CAPITALS : — 

(a) His heroes are always marked by an air distingue; his vile 

men are sure to be biases ... he does not simply enjoy his 
rest, he luxuriates in the dolce far niente and wonders w T hen 
w^e will manage to begin his magnum opus ! 

(b) The article* appeared in the Atlantic Monthly. 
Have you read Hawthorne's Marble Faun? 

(c) Sweep away utterly all frothiness and falsehood from your 

heart ; struggle unweariedly to acquire what is possible for 
every God-created man, a free, open, humble soul; speak not 
at all in any ivise, till you have somewhat, to speak; care not 
for the reward of your speaking, bat simply, and with 
undivided mind, for the truth of your speaking ! 

APOSTROPHE. 

The apostrophe is used to denote the omission of a 
letter or of letters (#) ; the omission of a figure or of 
figures (J) ; to distinguish the possessive case (e) ; to 
form certain plurals (d) : — 

(a) ' Tis [it is] curious that we believe only as deep as we live. 
What o'clock is it ? 

Thou 9 lt yet survive the storm. 

(b) The spirit of 9 76 animated them. 

(c) King^s [ = cyning-es~] . 

(c?) Cancel your x's and make your t*s better. 

HYPHEN. 

The hyphen is used to divide words into their con- 
stituent parts, either when it is desired to exhibit the 



PUNCTUATION, 217 

parts, as re-ject*ed, or when it is necessary to write a 
portion on the next line : — 

Pyrrhus, you tempt a danger high 
When you would steal from any li- 
Oness her cubs. 

The following rules, which cover most cases of such 
division, may be of service : — 

(1) Join consonants to the vowels whose sounds they modify; 
as, ep-i-dem-ic, an-i-mos-i-ty. 

(2) Prefixes and suffixes form distinct syllables, when possible 
without misrepresenting the pronunciation ; as, farm-er, re-print, 
dis-grace-ful. 

(3) In the case of compounds, the divisions fall between the 
constituents; as, horse-man, more-over. 



EXERCISES. 

1. Punctuate and capitalize and give reasons by referring to 
definite rules. 

(1) Slovenliness and Indelicacy of character generally go 

together 

(2) to be totally indifferent to Praise or censure is a Real 

defect in Character V 

(3) His work in many respects is very Imperfect 

(4) charity like the sun Brightens all his objects 

(5) We must be wise or foolish there is no medium. 

(6) An upright mind will never be at a loss to discern what 

is just and true lovely honest and of good report. 

(7) when thy friend is denounced openly and boldly Espouse 

his cause ! 

(8) True gentleness is native feeling heightened and improved 

by principle 

(9) i am obliged to you sir for your many kind Favors 

(10) He said how much better it is to get wisdom than Gold 

(11) It hurts a mans Pride to say i do not know 

(12) plutarch Calls Lying the vice of slaves ! 



218 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

(13) vices Like shadows towards the evening of life grow 

longer 

(14) From law arises security from security curiosity from 

curiosity knowledge. 

(15) As a companion he was severe and satirical as a friend 

captious and dangerous in his domestic sphere harsh 
jealous and irascible. 



Suggestion to Teacher. 

To test pupils in the use of capital letters and punctuation, an 
excellent method is to read an extract to the entire class. The 
reading should be deliberate and distiuct through the whole ex- 
tract. This will give all a general idea of the nature of the piece 
to be written. Next, the teacher will read, or rather dictate, at 
each time, as many words as the class can remember and write, 
and so on through till the end of the piece is reached. The 
extracts may be selected from the school readers. When the dic- 
tation is finished, each pupil should take a book and compare his 
work with that in the book, and note the differences. Or the 
original extract may be copied on the blackboard and the compari- 
sons there made. 

2. Distinguish between — 

(1) I, Paul, have written it; 
I Paul have written it. 

(2) You did not see him, then ? 
You did not see him then ? 

(3) O Shame ! where is thy blush ? 
Oh, shame ! where is thy blush ? 

(4) Why, did you not come to us in the beginning of the 

night ? 
Why did you not come to us in the beginning of the night? 

(5) The eye, that sees all things, sees not itself ; 
The eye that sees all things, sees not itself. 

(6) Behold the emblem of thy state in flowers, which bloom 

and die ; 
Behold the emblem of thy state in flow 7 ers which bloom 
and die. 



PUNCTUATION. 219 

(7) The earth is filled with labors, the works, of the dead; 
The earth is rilled with labors, the works of the dead. 

(8) His mind was profoundly thoughtful, and. vigorous ; 
His mind was profoundly thoughtful and vigorous. 

(9) 'Twas certain he could write, and cipher too ; 
'Twas certain he could write and cipher too. 

Copy the following paragraphs, using capital letters 
where needed, and inserting the proper marks of punc- 
tuation : — 

benjamin franklin was the son of a candle maker in boston in 
the days when there was only a little village where that great city 
is now this is a picture of the house in which he was born 

this house is not standing now after it was torn down a busi- 
ness block was built on the ground where it stood this block is 
named for franklin 

when franklin was a little boy he used to help his father by 
working in the shop and by carrying the candles home to customers 
but he grew tired of this occupation after a while and went to 
work in a printing office. 

the first printer for whom he worked was his older brother who 
was not always kind to him when he could stand ill treatment no 
longer he ran away from home and went to Philadelphia where he 
found work in a printing office. 



is the earth the only planet that has a moon asked philip Mer- 
cury and venus have no moons mars has two and jupiter has four 
but we can see them only when we look through a telescope replied 
frank 

are all the twinkling stars which one sees on a fine clear night 
planets inquired philip. 

none that twinkle are planets said frank a planet has no light 
of its own a planet shines just as the moon shines because the sun 
gives it light 

but our earth does not shine said philip 

indeed it does explained frank our earth appears to venus and 
mars as a shining planet 



220 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



CHAPTER XIV. 
Figures of Speech. 

Language is thought expressed in words, or mind 
translated into matter. The human race has, from 
earliest time, made use of pictures and illustrations in 
order to help the expression of thought. The more 
picturesque the expression, the more forcible the 
thought, and the stronger hold it obtained on those 
to whom it was addressed. This has led to the use of 
what is called figurative language, where pictures are 
used to help express emotion. 

Hence, figures of speech are peculiar forms of expres- 
sion used to make thought clearer, stronger, and more 
attractive. 

There are a great number of figures of speech, and 
they have been classified under different heads. Some 
of the most common are, — simile, metaphor, allegory, 
metonymy, synecdoche, hyperbole, personification, cli- 
max, and apostrophe. 

SIMILE. 

A simile expresses a resemblance between two things 
in some particular point. It is usually introduced by 
like or as. 

The Assyrian came down like the wolf on the fold. 

The murmuring pines and the hemlocks stand like Druids of eld. 

White as the snow were his locks. 

But like a graven image, black Auster kept his place. 



FIGURES OF SPEECH. 221 

Every resemblance is not a simile. The comparison 
must be limited to some particular point. Thus, John 
looks like his brother, is not a simile. 

To make the figure more striking the two things 
to be compared should be as unlike as possible, and 
still have one strong point of resemblance in appear- 
ance or effect. 

If the second term of the comparison is trivial, it 
tends to make the idea ridiculous ; as, — 

Her hair drooped round her pallid cheek 
Like sea-weed on a clam. 

METAPHOR. 

The metaphor, like the simile, compares one thing 
to another, but with this difference : the comparison is 
implied and not expressed. 

Simile. — The news was like a dagger to his heart. 
Metaphor. — The news was a dagger to his heart. 

In the simile, the things compared are carefully dis- 
tinguished, while in the metaphor they are so intimately 
associated as to be considered identical. 

Thy word is a lamp unto my feet. 

All flesh is grass. 

All the world's a stage, and all the men and women merely players. 

A flood of people filled the street. 

Care must be taken not to mix metaphors. It will 
not do to say, — 

The hand of Providence has left its footprints in the sands of 
Time. 

Figurative language must not be mixed with literaL; 
as, — 

Washington was the Father of his Country, and the first presi- 
dent of the United States. 



222 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

ALLEGORY. 

An allegory is a fictitious story, told for the purpose 
of teaching some moral truth. The lesson to be taught 
is not stated directly, but is implied in the narrative. 
It resembles the simile and the metaphor in that it is a 
comparison, but this comparison is much more extended, 
and enters into minute details. One of the best exam- 
ples of a long allegory is Bunyan's " Pilgrim's Progress." 

A short allegory is called a fable or a parable. Good 
examples of these are ^Esop's Fables and the parables 
of the New Testament. 

METONYMY. 

Metonymy is derived from two Greek words, mean- 
ing a change of name. It is a figure of speech where a 
thing is called, not by its own name, but by the name 
of something intimately associated with it. The ex- 
pression red tape is thus used to indicate official routine ; 
and the bench, the bar, the pulpit are spoken of instead 
of the persons occupying them, — the judge, the lawyer, 
or the minister. The following are examples of me- 
tonymy that are in frequent use : — 

The kettle boils. He has a long purse. 

The stove bakes well. The cart was dumped. 

In this way the cause is used for the effect, the effect 
for the cause, the container for the thing contained, and 
the sign for the thing signified. 

SYNECDOCHE. 

Synecdoche is that figure by which the name of a 
part of an object is put in place of the whole. This 



FIGURES OF SPEECH. 223 

gives more vigor to the idea, and conveys to the mind 
a more striking impression. Thus, cut-throat is a stronger 
term than murderer. This figure is very common. 

A greed for gold (money). 
All hands on deck ! 
Tea will be served at six o'clock. 
We must be loyal to our flag. 

Some authorities include under synecdoche instances 
where the whole is used for a part, but these figures can in 
most cases be better classified under Hyperbole ; as, — 

The cattle upon a thousand hills. 

Ten thousand fleets sweep over thee in vain. 

HYPERBOLE. 

Hyperbole or exaggeration is a figure by which 
more is said than is literally true. Used with care, it 
is effective in descriptions of heroic events, or great 
manifestations of nature ; but it is liable to degenerate 
into absurdity. It is frequently used in impassioned 
address. 

Then the fierce trumpet flourish 

From earth to heaven arose. 

He ran like a whirlwind up the pass. 
A shout that shook the towers. 
He spoke in bitter words that cut and stung. 
A tongue that should move the stones of Rome to rise and 
mutiny. 

A constant use of lryperbole tends to weaken the 
narrative, and, in conversation, it becomes very tire- 
some. Avoid the use of extravagant expressions, such 
as, a magnificent time, tired to death, tickled to pieces, 
dreadfully sorry, etc. 



224 ENGLISH GBAMMAE. 

PERSONIFICATION. 

Personification is a figure in which we attribute life 
and emotion to inanimate objects, and speak of them 
as if they had human powers. This can be done in two 
ways. 

First, by using an adjective or verb which can only 
be properly applied to an animate object ; as, — 

Gaunt Famine stalked through the land. 

Every clod feels a stir of might. 

Let not Ambition mock their useful toil. 

Second, by direct address (called apostrophe). 

O Death, where is thy sting? O Grave, where is thy victory? 

Thou, too, sail on, O Ship of State ! 

Sail on, O Union, strong and great ! 

CLIMAX. 

Climax is a figure where the members of the sen- 
tence, or the sentences, are arranged in the order of 
their importance. Where the order proceeds from weak 
to strong, it is a true climax ; where it proceeds from 
strong to weak, it is an anti-climax. 

Climax. — Csesar snatches a shield from a common soldier, 
puts himself at the head of his broken troops, darts into the thick 
of the battle, rescues his legions, and overthrows the enemy. 
Anti-climax. — 

O dear ! oh dear I what shall I do? 
I've lost my wife and seed corn too ! 

APOSTROPHE. 

Apostrophe is a figure in which the speaker or writer 
breaks away from the previous method of discourse, and 
directly addresses some person or thing ; as, — 

O fortune, fortune! all men call thee fickle. — Shakspeare. 



GLOSSARY. 
Grammatical Terms. 

[L. = Latin ; Gr. = Greek ; Fr. = French.] 

Abbreviate, L. abbreviare, ab, from, and breviare, to shorten, from 
brevis, short. L. for Latin, Gr. for Greek, Fr. for French, are 
abbreviated words. 

Abbreviation, L. The act of shortening. 

Abridged, Fr. abreger, to shorten ; derived from the L. abbreviare. 
Dependent clauses, adjective, and adverbial, are often abridged ; 
as, The man, who was sick, will get well = The sick man will 
get well. I wish that 1 could read the book = I wish to read the 
book. 

Absolute, L. absolutus, from absolvere, to loose from, ab and solvere. 
A noun or pronoun is said to be in the absolute case in such sen- 
tences as the following : The ship having sailed, the citizens 
returned to their homes. The general having fallen, the soldiers 
retreated. 

Accent, Fr. accent, L. accentus ; ad + cantus, a singing, canere, to 
sing. Accent is a greater stress of voice on one syllable in a 
word than on another syllable. 

Active, Fr. actif, L. activus, from agere, to act; to put in motion. 
Active verbs represent their subjects in an active state. The 
active voice represents the subject as acting. 

Adjective, L. adjectivium, from ad, to, and jacere, to throw. Liter- 
ally, throwing to a noun. 

Adjunct, L. adjunctus, from adjungere, ad, to, and jungere, to join. 
Words added to any one of the principal parts of speech are 
sometimes called primary adjuncts, and words added to other 
adjuncts are secondary adjuncts. Consequently adjuncts are 
divided into three classes : Adjective, adverbial, and explanatory. 

225 



226 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Adnominal, L. ad + nomen, noun, to a noun. An adnominal word, 
phrase, or clause is one which limits a noun or pronoun. 

Adverb, L. adverbium, from ad and verbum, word or verb ; added 
to a verb. 

Adverbial, L. adverbialis, pertaining to an adverb, or of the nature 
of an adverb. 

Adversative, L. adversativis, Fr, adversary ad and vertere, to turn 
to. Adversative conjunctions are those which unite elements in 
opposition to, or in contrast with, each other ; as, I go, but I 
will return. 

Analysis, Gr. analusis, from ana, again, and luein, to loose. 
Analysis is the process of separating a sentence, a clause, a 
phrase, or a word into its constituent elements. 

Antecedent, L. antecedens, from ante, before, cedere, to go. The 
noun to which a pronoun refers, or for which it stands, is its 
antecedent. 

Apostrophe, Gr. apo, from, and strophe, a turning, turning away, 
turning from. In grammar it is used in two senses : a turning 
from, and to denote the omission of a letter or letters, and as 
the sign of the possessive case. 

Apposition, L. appositio, from ad and ponere, to place, to place 
to. A noun that describes or explains the meaning of another 
noun or pronoun is in apposition with it; as, William the 
Silent was a clear-sighted statesman. 

Arrangement, Fr. arranger, to range, to set in a row. The ar- 
rangement of the elements in the construction of a sentence 
refers to the position each should occupy. 

Article, L. articulus, from art us, joint, to joint, to fit ; hence in 
grammar the words a, an, and the, used to limit nouns. 

Assertive, L. assessere, ad + sesere, to join or bind together. A 
sentence that affirms a fact or statement. The same as a de- 
clarative sentence. 

Auxiliary, L. auxiliaris, from auxilium, help, aid. Auxiliary verbs 
are those used to help conjugate other verbs. They are help- 
ing verbs, but they derive some force from their original 
meaning. 

Base, Gr. basis, a stepping-stone, a step, a pedestal. The base of 
a sentence is the essential elements ; as, subject, verb, object^ 
complement. 



GRAMMATICAL TEEMS. 227 

Capital, L. capitalis, from caput, head. Applied to a letter, it 
means a leading or heading letter. 

Cardinal, L. cardinalis, from cardo, the hinge of a door, that on 
which a thing turns or depends. Applied to the numbers one, 
two, three, etc. 

Case, L. casus, from cadere, to fall. Case is literally a falling off 
from the nominative or first state of a word ; it also denotes the 
relation of a noun or pronoun to other words. 

Clause, L. clausa, from claudere, to shut. A clause is a proposition 
used as a part of a sentence. It may be independent or depend- 
ent. Dependent are of three kinds: (1) Noun clauses; (2) ad- 
jective clauses ; (3) adverbial clauses. 

Climax, Gr. klimax, ladder. Climax is a figure of rhetoric so 
arranged that each succeeding idea rises higher than its prede- 
cessor till the highest is reached. 

Collective, L. collectivus, from collectus, from col + legere, to bind 
together. An aggregate of individuals in one group regarded 
as a single thing ; as, army, jury, nation. 

Colon, Gr. kolon, L. colon, limb, member. Used to separate parts 
of a sentence when the sense is complete and the parts are nearly 
independent. 

Comparison, L. comparatio, from comparare, — con, together ; par, 
equal. Comparison is the change in adjectives and adverbs to 
express different degrees in either quality or quantity. 

Complement, L. complementum, from complere, con + plere, to fill 
with. A complement, as used in grammar, is a noun, a pronoun, 
or an adjective added to a verb or a verbal to complete its mean- 
ing. Complements are, therefore, divided into three classes : 
(1) Object complements; (2) attribute complements ; (3) objective 
complements. 

Complete, L. con + plere. 

Complex, L. complexus, from complectere, — con + plectere, to twist. 
The word complex is applied to sentences, clauses, and phrases. 

Composition, L. compositio, from Fr. com + poser, to place, to put 
together. The act or art of uniting different things. The art 
of literary construction. 

Conjugation, L. conjugatio, from con -f jugare, to join. Conjuga- 
tion is the variation in verb-forms to express voice, mode, tense, 
person, and number. 



228 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Conjunction, L. conjunctio, from con -f jungere, to join. . The pri- 
mary office of conjunctions is to join sentences. 
Conjunctive, L. conjunctivus, from con + jungere, to join; serving 

to unite or to join. 
Connectives, L. connectere, from con + nectere, to bind. The 

connectives are relative pronouns, conjunctions, conjunctive adverbs, 

and prepositions. 
Consonants, L. consonans, from consonare, from ccw + sonar e, to 

sound with ; to sound at the same time ; to agree. The letters 

of the alphabet that are not vowels. 
Construction, L. constructio, from construere, from con + struere, 

to bring together ; to pile up, to set in order. The arrangement 

of the words ( in a sentence. 
Contraction, L. contractio, from contraliere, from con + trahere, to 

draw with, to draw to. The shortening of a word. 
Co-ordinate, L. co + ordinatus, from or dinar e, to regulate. Equal 

in rank. 
Copula, L., from copulare, to join. The word which unites, or 

joins, the subject and predicate of a sentence. Copula is used 

more extensively in logic than in grammar. 
Correlative, L. cor + relativus — cor, together; relativus, related. 

In grammar, having a mutual relation. 
Criticism, Gr. kritikos, from krinein, to judge, to discern. Criti- 
cism refers to the principles and rules which regulate the prac- 
tice of critics. 
Dative, L. dativus, from dare, to give. The case of a noun which 

expresses the remoter object, and is indicated in English by to 

or for governing the object; as, He gave me a book. 
Declension, L. declinatio, from declinare, from de + clinare, to 

incline, to turn down. The declension of a noun or pronoun is 

to name all its cases in both numbers. 
Declarative, L. declarativus, from declarare, from de + clarare, to 

make clear. Declarative is applied to sentences which assert a 

fact, or affirm a proposition. 
Defective, L. defectivus, from deficere, to desert, fail, be wanting. 

A verb is defective when it lacks any of its principal parts. 
Dependent, L. dependens, from dependere, from de + pendere, to 

hang. Dependent is used in speaking of adjective or adverbial 

clauses. 



GRAMMATICAL TERMS. 229 

Derivative, L. derivatiuus, from derivare, to lead, to turn off as a 
stream or brook. A word derived from another word. 

Diagram, Gr. diagrammed from diagrqphein, from dicL, through ; 
graphein, to draw, to write. In grammar, a diagram is a picture 
of the analysis of a sentence. 

Element, L. elementum, a first principle, an ultimate part of an}'- 
thing. An element is a word or a group of words that performs 
a distinct office in language. The English language has three 
elements: 1. words; 2. phrases; 3. sentences (independent and 
dependent). 

Ellipsis, Gr. elleipsis, from en, in, and leipein, to leave. Ellipsis is 
a figure of syntax by which words omitted in a sentence are 
readily supplied. 

Errors, L. errare, to err, to wander. Mistakes or wanderings in 
the use of language. Applies more especially to wrong forms of 
words, and faulty arrangement. 

Etymology, Gr. etumologia, from etumon, the true literal sense of 
the word, and logos, discourse. That division of grammar which 
treats of the origin, variation, derivation, and properties of word^s. 

Euphony, Gr. euphonea, from eu, well, and phone, sound, a pleas- 
ing or sweet sound. 

Example, L. exemplum, what is taken out. 

Exclamatory, L. exclamare, from ex + clamare, to cry out, to utter 
w T ith vehemence. 

Explanation, L. explanatio, from explanare, ex + planare, out + to 
make level or plain. Clearing from obscurity. 

Expletive, L. expletus,, from explere, — ex, out ; plere, to fill. A 
word merely added to fill up a vacancy. 

Factitive, ~L.factitivus, from facere, to make. A factitive object is 
a second direct object after such verbs as make, create, appoint, 
etc. They made him general. 

Feet, foot. The words feet and foot refer to poetry. A line of 
poetry consists of successive combinations of syllables called 
feet. A foot contains either two or three syllables. To divide 
the verses of a poem into feet is scanning. 

Feminine, L. femininus, femina, a woman. 

Figure, L. figura, a form or shape. Figures are divided into two 
kinds: (1) Figures of grammar ; (2) figures of rhetoric. The 
first are intentional deviations from the ordinary construction 



230 ENGLISH GBAMMAB. 

of words, and the second are intentional deviations from the 
ordinary application of words. 

Form, L,. forma, shape, figure, image, outline, plan, etc. The par- 
ticular shape, structure, or variation of a part of speech. These 
forms are spoken of as noun-forms, adjective forms, verb-forms, etc. 

Gender, L. genus, race, kind. A classification of nouns with re- 
spect to sex. 

Genitive, L. genitivus, from gignere, to beget. The genitive case 
in Latin and Greek corresponds to the possessive in English. 
A few English grammarians called the possessive the genitive. 

Government, L. gubernare, to steer, to pilot. Government is the 
power one word has over another. It is applied to nouns, pro- 
nouns, verbs, participles, and prepositions. 

Grammar, Gr. gramma, a letter. 

Grammatical predicate, grammatical subject. These are the 
essential elements of a sentence as distinguished from the logi- 
cal or expanded elements. 

Hyperbole, Gr. huperbole, from liuperballein, — huper, over, and 
ballein, to throw, to throw over or beyond. An exaggerated 
figure of speech. Macaulay calls it the bolder kind of speech ; 
that it lies without deceiving. 

Hyphen, Gr. huplien, from liupli and en, under one, into one, to- 
gether ; from liupo, under, and en, neuter of eis, one. The mark 
placed under to show that a letter is omitted from a word. 

Imperative, L. imperativus, from imperare, to command. 

Indicative, L. indicativus, from indicare, to proclaim. The mode 
that points out. 

Indirect, L. directus, from dirigere, to direct. Indirect object is 
the more remote object in a sentence. 

Inflection, L. inflexis, from in and flectere, to bend. 

Infinitives, L. infinitivus, from in, not, and finire, to limit. Not 
limited. 

Interjection, L. inter jectio, from inter, between, and jacere, to 
throw. 

Interrogative, L. interrogans, from interrogare, from inter, between, 
and rogare, to ask. Such sentences as ask questions. 

Intransitive, L. intransitivus, from in and transitivus. Applied to 
verbs that do not take object complements to complete their 
meaning. 



GRAMMATICAL TERMS. 231 

Irony, L. ironia, from Gr. ieron, a dissembler in speech ; ridicule. 

Irregular, L. regularis, from regula, a rule, from regere, to guide, 
to rule. Applied to verbs that do not form their past indic- 
ative and past participle by the addition of ed to the present 
indicative. 

Italics, L. Italicus, relating to Italy. A kind of letter. 

Language, L. lingua, the tongue. 

Letter, L. littera, a letter, a mark, or character used to represent a 
sound of the human voice. 

License, L. licentia, from licere, to be permitted. The deviation 
from a rule. 

Logical, Gr. logos, from legein, to say, to speak. The science of 
the laws of thought as thought. In grammar, logical is applied 
to the expanded subject as well as to the expanded predicate. 

Loose. This word is applied to such sentences as appear to reach 
the end of the thought before the sentence is finished. 

Lyric, Gr. lura, a lyre. Poetry to be set to music. This kind of 
poetry usually includes songs, odes, elegies, and sonnets. 

Masculine, L. masculinus, from masculus, a male. 

Metaphor, Gr. metaphora, from metaplierein, to carry over, to 
transfer, from meta, beyond, over, and pherein, to bring. A 
word used to imply a resemblance ; as, All the world's a stage. 

Metonymy, Gr. metonumia ; meta indicating a change, aud onuma, 
from onoma, a name. A figure of speech in which one word is 
put for another which suggests it ; as, He drank a bottle of wine. 
Here the container is put for the thing contained. 

Meter or metre, Gr. melron, measure. The arrangement into 
verse of definite measures of sound, definitely accented. 

Modal, L. modus, measure. An adverb that modifies an entire 
sentence is called a modal. 

Mode, mood, L. modus, manner. It refers to the use of the verb. 

Modification, modifier, L. modificatio, from modificare, modus, 
limit ; ficare, to make. To modify a word is to change its appli- 
cation, or to add to its meaning, or to restrict its use. 

Multiplicative, L. multiplicatus, from multiplicare, from multiple, 
many folds. Applied to adjectives which show repetition ; as, 
three-fold, four-fold, etc. 

Negatives, L. negativus, from negare, to deny. Negatives, either 
words or propositions that deny. 



232 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Neuter, L. ne, not, and uter, whether. In grammar, neuter is 
applied to nouns and verbs ; nouns without gender, and verbs 
that take predicate nominatives. 

Nominative, L. tiominativus, from nominare, to name, from nomen, 
name. The nominative case is the subject of a sentence. 

Noun, L. nomen, a name. The name of anything. 

Numerals, L. numeralis, from numerus, number. Numeral adjec- 
tives are divided into cardinal, ordinal, multiplicative. 

Object, object complement, objective complement, L. objec- 
tivus, from ob, against, and jacere, to throw. Transitive verbs 
and prepositions require objects or nouns in the objective case. 
An object complement of a sentence completes the predicate and 
names the receiver of the act. The objective complement com- 
pletes the assertion and belongs to the object. 

Orthoepy, Gr. orthoepeia, from orthos, right, and epos, a word, to 
utter words correctly. 

Orthography, Gr. orthographia, from orthographos, writing cor- 
rectly ; orthos, right, and graphein, to write. That division of 
grammar which treats of letters, syllables, separate words, and 
spelling. 

Paragraph, Gr. paragraphos, from paragrapliein, to write beside ; 
para, beside, and graphein, to write. A distinct part of a dis- 
course or writing. 

Parenthesis, Gr. parent ithenai, to put in beside, to insert, from 
para, beside ; en, in ; tithenai, to put, to place. 

Parsing, L. pars, a part. To tell what part of speech a word is, 
to give all its properties, and to show its relation to other words. 

Participle, L. participium, from particeps, sharing; from pars, 
part ; caper e, to take. A part of speech of the nature of a verb 
and an adjective. 

Passive, L. passivus, not active. Passive verbs are those which 
represent the subject in a receiving or passive state. 

Period, Gr. periodus, from pei*i, around; odos, a way. 

Person, L. persona, from personare, to sound through ; from per, 
through, and sonare, to sound. The original meaning of person 
was a mask, worn by actors. In grammar person refers to the 
speaker, the person spoken to, or the person or thing spoken of. 

Personification, L. persona and facere, to make; treating an 
inanimate object as if it were alive. 



GRAMMATICAL TERMS. 233 

Phrase, Gr. phrasis, from phrazein, to speak. A group of words. 
Pleonasm, Gr. pleonasmos, from pleonazein, to be more than 

enough. Too many words. 
Plural, L. pluralis, from plus. More than one. 
Possessive, L. possessions, from possidere, to possess. Denotes 

possession or ownership. 
Potential, L. potentialis, from posse, to be able. That form of the 

verb which expresses possibility, power, etc. 
Predicate, L. praedicatum, from prae, and dicare, to proclaim. 

The predicate is that which is affirmed or denied of the subject. 
Prefix, L. praefixus, from praefigere ; prae, before, and figere, to 

fix ; fixed before. 
Preposition, L. praepositio, from prae, and ponere, to put, to put 

before. 
Pronoun, L. pro and nomen. 
Proposition, L. propositio, from pro and ponere. A sentence in 

which two objects of thought agree or disagree. 
Prosody, Gr. prosodia, from pros, to, and ode, song ; a song sung 

to or with an accompanying song. That division of grammar 

which treats of the quantity of syllables, of accent, and of the 

laws of versification. 
Punctuation, L. punctum, a point. Punctuation is the art of divid- 
ing written or printed matter by means of points. 
Question, L. quaestio, from quaerere, to seek for, to ask, to in- 
quire. 
Quotation, L. quotus, what number, how many. That which is 

quoted or cited. 
Radical, L. radix, root. A primitive or root word. 
Reciprocals, L. reciprocus, the pronoun phrases each other and 

one another. 
Reflexives, L. reflexus, from reflectere, to reflect back. A verb 

whose object is the same as the subject; as, He kicked himself. 

Himself is a reflexive object. 
Relatives, L. relativus, from referre, from re, again, and ferre, to 

bear; p.p. relatus. In grammar referring to an antecedent. 
Responsives, L. responsivus, from re, and spondere, to promise. 

Words that are used to answer questions; as, yes, no, etc. 
Review, L. revidere, from re, again, and videre, to see. To go 

over affain. 



234 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Rhetoric, Gr. rhetor, an orator. The art of writing and speaking 

effectively. 
Rhyme, A.-S. rime, correspondence of sonnd at the end of lines. 
Sarcasm, Gr. sarkasmos, from sarkazein, to tear flesh like dogs. 
Satire, L. satira, from satura, a dish filled with various kinds of 

food ; keen and trenchant wit. 
Gemicolon, L. semi, and Gr. kolon, limb or member. 
Sentence, L. sententia, from sentire, to discern, to feel, to think. 

A thought put into words. 
Simile, L. similis, like. He is like a lion. 
Spelling, A.-S. To express a word by its proper letters correctly 

arranged. 
Spondee, Gr. sponde, a drink offering. A poetic foot of two 

syllables. 
Stanza, L. starts, from stare, to stand. A number of lines or verses 

forming a division of a poem. 
Subject, L. subjectus, through an old form of Fr. sujet, thrown 

under. In grammar, that of which something is affirmed or 

predicated. 
Subjective. Same as above. 
Subjunctive, L. subjunctivus, from sub and jungere. This mode 

is used to express a statement or supposition, not as a fact, but 

as thought of. 
Subordinate, L. sub, under, and ordinatus, from ordinare, to set in 

order, to arrange. An element which is second in rank; used 

to limit or modify another element. 
Sub-vocal, L. vox, voice ; sub, under, and vox, voice. Breath and 

voice combined. 
Suffix, L. suffixus, from sub, under, and figere, to fix. A word, 

syllable, or letter joined to the end of a word. 
Superlative, L. superlativus, superlatus, from superferre, to carry 

over or beyond. Exceeding all others. 
Syllable, Gr. sullambanein, sullabe, that which is held together; 

sun, with, and lambanein, to take. Taking sounds together. 
Syncope, Gr. sugkope, a cutting up. To take out a letter or a 

syllable from a word. 
Synecdoche, Gr. avv, syn, with €/cSexeo-#ai, to receive. A word 

that expresses either more or less than it actually denotes. 



GRAMMATICAL TERMS. 235 

Synopsis, Gr. sunophis, from syn, together, and ophis, a sight. A 
general view. 

Syntax, Gr. suntaxis, from sun, with, and tassein, to put in order. 
That division of grammar which treats of the structure of the 
sentence. 

Synthesis, Gr. sun and tithenai, to place. Putting together, mak- 
ing a whole from elements. 

Tautology, Gr. tautologia, a repetition of the same meaning. 

Tense, L. tempus, time. 

Transitive, L. transitivus, from trans, across, and ire, to go. A 
verb that requires an object to complete its meaning. 

Trochee, Gr. trokaios, from trochein, to run. A poetic foot of two 
syllables. 

Trope, Gr. tropos, from trepein, to turn. 

Verb, verbal, L. verbum, a word. Infinitives and participles are 
called verbals ; also a word that is derived from a verb and per- 
forms the office of a noun, an adjective, or an adverb, is called a 
verbal. 

Versification, L. versificatio, the art or practice of making verses. 

Vocative, L. vocativus, from vocare, to call. The case form of a 
noun in which an address is used. 

Voice, L. vox, voice. To speak, to mention. Voice in grammar 
is the variation in the transitive verb to show whether the sub- 
ject acts or receives the act. 



INDEX. 



Absolute, nominative, 182. 
Abstract noun, 64. 
Adjective, 104. 

demonstrative, 104. 

distributive, 104. 

comparison of, 108. 
double, 110. 
irregular, 109. 

indefinite, 105. 

interrogative, 105. 

numeral, 105. 

parsing of, 206. 

participial, 105. 

predicate, 36. 

uses of, 111. 
Adjective pronoun, 90. 
Adverb, 148. 

comparison of, 153. 
irregular, 153. 

conjunctive, 150. 

interrogative, 150. 

parsing of, 206. 

place of, 198. 
Adverbial noun, 41. 
Adversative conjunction, 162. 
Allegory, 222. 
Alphabet, 24. 

Alternative conjunction, 162. 
Analysis of a sentence, 51. 

of a word, 177. 

order of, 52. 
Antecedent, 183. 
Anticlimax, 224. 
Apposition, 181. 
Apostrophe, 216, 224. 
Article, definite. 104. 

indefinite, 105. 
as, 92, 164, 1(55. 
Aspirates, 18. 



Attributive complement, parsing of, 

181. 
Auxiliary verbs, 131, 187. 

Bain's principles, 193. 
Base of modifier, 42. 
be, 132. 
Brackets, 214. 

Capitals, 18, 216. 

rules for, 20. 
Case, 76. 

nominative, 77. 

objective, 77. 

possessive, 77, 78. 
Clause, 36. 
Clearness, 194. 
Climax, 196, 224. 
Collective noun, 63. 
Colon, 209. 
Comma, 211. 
Common noun, 63. 
Comparison of adjectives, 108. 

of adverbs, 153. 
Complement, 115. 
Complete verb, 115. 
Compound personal pronoun, 90. 
Compound, a, 170. 
Concord, rules for, 180. 
Conjugation, 131. 

of to love, 135. 
Conjunction, 162. 

parsing of, 206. 
Conjunctive adverb, 150. 
Copula, 37. 

Copulative conjunction, 162. 
Co-ordinate conjunction, 162. 
Co-ordinate connectives, 46. 
Correlative conjunction, 162. 
237 



238 INDEX. 



Dash, 213. 

Declarative sentence, 31, 34. 
Declension, 80. 
Definitive adjective, 104. 
Demonstrative adjective, 104. 
Derivative, a, 170. 
Descriptive adjective, 104. 
Diagramming, 55. 
Distributive adjective, 104. 

Elements of a sentence, 35. 

connecting, 46. 

principal, 36. 
predicate, 36. 
subject, 36. 

subordinate, 40. 
Emphasis, 197. 

English, growth' and relations, 13. 
Etymology, 176. 
Exclamation point, 209. 
Exclamatory sentence, 33, 34. 

Figures of speech, 220. 
first three, 195. 
Formation of words, 169. 

Gender, 68. 

by a distinct word, 70. 

by a prefix, 70. 

by a suffix, 70. 
Government, rules of, 180. 
Grammar, 17. 

divisions of, 17. 
Grammatical terms, 225. 
Greek prefixes, 174. 

Hyperbole, 223. 
Hyphen, 216. 

Illative conjunction, 163. 
Imperative mode, 127. 
Imperative sentence, 32, 34. 
Incomplete verb, 115. 
Indefinite adjective, 105. 
Independent elements, 46. 
Indicative mode, 127. 
Infinitive, 120. 

subject of, 191. 
Interjection, 167. 

parsing of, 204. 



Interrogative adjective, 105. 

adverb, 150. 

pronoun, 89. 

sentence, 31, 34. 

verb, 140. 
Interrogation, point, 209. 
Intransitive verb, 116. 
Inversion, 193. 
Irregular verb, 121. 
it, 91. 

Language, 28. 
Latin prefixes, 172. 
Letter, 17. 

Material noun, 64. 
Metaphor, 221. 
Metonymy, 222. 
Mode, 127. 

Naked sentences, 29. 
Nominative case, 77. 

as subject, 180. 

independent, 182. 
Noun, 62. 

abstract, 64. 

collective, 63. 

common, 63. 

compound, 170. 

material, 64. 

modifications of, 66. 
case, 76. 
gender, 68. 
number, 72. 
person, 67. 

proper, 62. 

uses of, 81. 

verbal, 65. 
Number of nouns, 72. 

pronouns, 72. 

verbs, 130. 
Numeral adjective, 105. 

O and oh, 21. 
Objective case, 77. 

parsing of, 190. 
Objective complement, 111. 

parsing of, 181. 
Order of words in a sentence, 193. 
Orthoepy, 17. 
Orthography, 17. 



INDEX. 



239 



Parsing, 205. 
Participles, 120. 
Parts of speech, 26. 

definition of, 26. 
Passive voice, 141. 
Past tense and participles, 187. 
Period, 208. 
Person of noun, 67. 

of pronoun, 67, 95. 

of verb, 130. 
Personification, 224. 
Phrase, 36. 
Pleonasm, 47. 
Plural, rules for, 72. 
Possessive case, 78. 

parsing of, 182. 
Potential mode, 127. 
Predicate, 36. 

adjective, 111. 

enlarged, 41. 

nominative, 36. 
Prefixes, 171. 

Greek, 174. 

Latin, 172. 

Saxon, 172. 
Preposition, 156. 

final, 197. 

list of, 157. 
Primitive, a, 170. 
Principal parts, 121. 
Pronominal adjective, 90. 
Pronoun, 88. 

declension, 97. 

demonstrative, 89. 

indefinite, 89. 

interrogative, 89. 

modifications of, 95. 
case, 96. 
gender, 95. 
numb or, 96. 
person, 95. 

personal, 89. 
compound, 90. 

reciprocal, 90. 

relative, 89, 91. 
compound. 91. 

reference of, 196. 

uses of, 99. 
Proper noun, 62. 
Punctuation, 207. 



Quotation marks, 215. 

Reciprocal pronouns, 90. 
Reference of pronouns, 196. 
Regular verb, 121. 
Relative pronoun, 89, 93. 
Roman suffixes, 175. 

Saxon prefixes, 172. 
Semicolon, 210. 
Sentence, 28, 

complex^ 30. 

compound, 30. 

declarative, 31. 

elements of, 35. 

exclamatory, 33. 

imperative, 32. 

interrogative, 31. 

naked, 29. 

simple, 29. 
Simile, 220. 
Spelling, 24. 

rules for, 25. 
Structure of sentence, 188. 
Subject of infinitive, 191. 
Subject, 36. 

enlarged, 40. 

parsing of, 180. 
Subjunctive mode, 128. 
Subordinate conjunction, 162. 
Subordinate connectives, 46. 
Subvoeals, 18. 
Suffixes, 170. 

Roman, 175. 

Saxon, 174. 
Syllables, 17, 23. 

rules for division, 23. 
Synecdoche, 222. 
Syntax, 180. 

Tense, 129. 

Tense forms and time, 188. 

that, 93. 

three first, 195. 

to love, 135. 

Transitive verb, 116. 

Transposition, 193. 

1 Underscore, 216. 



240 



INDEX. 



Verb, 115. 

auxiliary, 131. 
copulative, 117. 
conjugation of, 131. 
interrogative, 140. 
intransitive, 116. 
irregular, 121. 
modifications of, 127. 

mode, 127. 

number, 130. 

person, 130. 

tense, 129. 

voice, 140. 
negative, 140. 
parsing of, 206. 



principal parts, 121. 

regular, 121. 

transitive, 116. 
Verbals, 119. 
Verbal adjective, 105. 

noun, 65. 
Vocals, 18. 

ivhat, 92. 
ichich, 93. 
ivho, 92. 
Word, 18. 

analysis of, 177. 

formation of, 169. 
Words, order of, in sentence, 193. 



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